Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Multiple issues {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other
Neapolitan (autonym: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; Template:Langx) is a Romance language of the Italo-Romance group spoken in most of continental Southern Italy. It is named after the Kingdom of Naples, which once covered most of the area, and the city of Naples was its capital. On 14 October 2008, a law by the Region of Campania stated that Neapolitan was to be protected.<ref name=denaro>"Tutela del dialetto, primo via libera al Ddl campano" Template:Webarchive ("Bill to protect dialect green-lighted") from Il Denaro, economic journal of South Italy, 15 October 2008 Re Franceschiello. L'ultimo sovrano delle Due Sicilie</ref>
While the language group is native to much of continental Southern Italy or the former Kingdom of Naples, the terms Neapolitan, napulitano or napoletano may also instead refer more narrowly to the specific variety spoken natively in the city of Naples and the immediately surrounding Naples metropolitan area and Campania region. The present article mostly deals with this variety, which enjoys a certain degree of prestige and has historically wide written attestations.<ref>Ledgeway, Adam. 2009. Grammatica diacronica del napoletano. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, pp. 3, 13-15</ref><ref>Radtke, Edgar. 1997. I dialetti della Campania. Roma: Il Calamo. pp. 39ff</ref>
DistributionEdit
Largely due to massive Southern Italian migration in the late 19th century and 20th century, there are also a number of Neapolitan speakers in Italian diaspora communities in the United States, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico, and VenezuelaTemplate:Citation needed. However, in the United States, traditional Neapolitan has had considerable contact with English and the Sicilian languages spoken by Sicilian and Calabrian immigrants living alongside Neapolitan-speaking immigrants and so the Neapolitan in the US is now significantly different from the contemporary Neapolitan spoken in NaplesTemplate:Citation needed. English words are often used in place of Neapolitan words, especially among second-generation speakersTemplate:Citation needed. On the other hand, the effect of Standard Italian on Neapolitan in Italy has been similar because of the increasing displacement of Neapolitan by Standard Italian in daily speechTemplate:Citation needed.
ClassificationEdit
Neapolitan is a Romance language and is considered as part of Southern Italo-Romance. There are notable differences among the various dialects, but they are all generally mutually intelligible.
Italian and Neapolitan are of variable mutual comprehensibility, depending on affective and linguistic factors. There are notable grammatical differences, such as Neapolitan having nouns in the neuter form and a unique plural formation, as well as historical phonological developments, which often obscure the cognacy of lexical items.
Its evolution has been similar to that of Italian and other Romance languages from their roots in Vulgar Latin. It may reflect a pre-Latin Oscan substratum, as in the pronunciation of the d sound as an r sound (rhotacism) at the beginning of a word or between two vowels: e.g. doje (feminine) or duje (masculine), meaning "two", is pronounced, and often spelled, as roje/ruje; vedé ("to see") as veré, and often spelled so; also cadé/caré ("to fall") and Madonna/Maronna.<ref name="sornicola">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Another purported Oscan influence is the historical assimilation of the consonant cluster {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (this is generally reflected in spelling more consistently: Template:Wikt-lang vs Italian Template:Wikt-lang "world"; Template:Wikt-lang vs Italian Template:Wikt-lang "when"), along with the development of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}~{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Template:Wikt-lang vs Italian Template:Wikt-lang "drum"), also consistently reflected in spelling. Other effects of the Oscan substratum are postulated, but substratum claims are highly controversial. As in many other languages in the Italian Peninsula, Neapolitan has an adstratum greatly influenced by other Romance languages (Catalan, Spanish and Franco-Provençal above all), Germanic languages and Greek (both ancient and modern). The language had never been standardised, and the word for tree has three different spellings: Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang and Template:Wikt-lang.
Neapolitan has enjoyed a rich literary, musical and theatrical history (notably Giambattista Basile, Eduardo Scarpetta, his son Eduardo De Filippo, Salvatore Di Giacomo and Totò). Thanks to this heritage and the musical work of Renato Carosone in the 1950s, Neapolitan is still in use in popular music, even gaining national popularity in the songs of Pino Daniele and the Nuova Compagnia di Canto Popolare.
The language has no official status within Italy and is not taught in schools. The University of Naples Federico II offers (from 2003) courses in Campanian Dialectology at the faculty of Sociology, whose actual aim is not to teach students to speak the language but to study its history, usage, literature and social role. There are also ongoing legislative attempts at the national level to have it recognized as an official minority language of Italy. It is a recognized ISO 639 Joint Advisory Committee language with the ISO 639-3 language code of nap.
Here is the IPA pronunciation of the Neapolitan spoken in the city of Naples:
| English | Neapolitan (standard) | Neapolitan (diacritics)Template:Efn | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| Our Father who art in heaven, | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| hallowed be thy name | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| Thy kingdom come, | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| Thy will be done, | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| on earth as it is in heaven. | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| Give us this day our daily bread | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| and forgive us our trespasses | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| as we forgive those who trespass against us, | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| and lead us not into temptation, | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| but deliver us from evil. | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
| Amen. | lang}} | lang}} | main}} |
Alphabet and pronunciationEdit
Neapolitan orthography consists of 22 Latin letters. Much like Italian orthography, it does not contain k, w, x, or y even though these letters might be found in some foreign words; unlike Italian, it does contain the letter j. The following English pronunciation guidelines are based on General American pronunciation, and the values used may not apply to other dialects. (See also: International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects.)
All Romance languages are closely related. Although Neapolitan shares a high degree of its vocabulary with Italian, the official language of Italy, differences in pronunciation can make the connection unrecognizable to those without knowledge of Neapolitan. The most strikingTemplate:Citation needed phonological difference is the Neapolitan weakening of unstressed vowels into schwa (schwa is pronounced like the a in about or the u in upon).Template:Efn However, it is also possible (and quite common for some Neapolitans) to speak standard Italian with a "Neapolitan accent"; that is, by pronouncing un-stressed vowels as schwa or by pronouncing the letter s as Template:IPAblink (like the sh in ship) instead of Template:IPAblink (like the s in sea or the ss in pass) when the letter representing Template:IPAslink is in initial position followed by a consonant, but not when it is followed by a dental occlusive Template:IPAslink or Template:IPAslink (at least in the purest form of the language) but by otherwise using the vocabulary and grammatical forms of Italian.
Therefore, while pronunciation presents the strongest barrier to comprehensionTemplate:Citation needed, the grammar of Neapolitan is what sets it apart from Italian. In Neapolitan, for example, the gender and number of a word is expressed by a change in the accented vowel because it no longer distinguishes final unstressed Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink (e.g. luongo {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, longa {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; Italian lungo, lunga; masc. "long", fem. "long"), whereas in Italian it is expressed by a change in the final vowel. These and other morpho-syntactic differences distinguish the Neapolitan language from the Italian language and the Neapolitan accent.
Neapolitan has had a significant influence on the intonation of Rioplatense Spanish spoken in Buenos Aires and the surrounding region of Argentina and in the entire country of Uruguay.<ref>Colantoni, Laura, and Jorge Gurlekian."Convergence and intonation: historical evidence from Buenos Aires Spanish", Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Volume 7, Issue 02, August 2004, pp. 107–119, Cambridge Journals Online</ref>
VowelsEdit
While there are only five graphic vowels in Neapolitan, phonemically, there are eight. Stressed vowels {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can be either "closed" or "open" and the pronunciation is different for the two. The grave accent ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is used to denote open vowels, and the acute accent ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is used to denote closed vowels, with alternative {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. However, accent marks are not commonly used in the actual spelling of words except when they occur on the final syllable of a word, such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and when they appear here in other positions, it is only to demonstrate where the stress, or accent, falls in some words. Also, the circumflex is used to mark a long vowel where it would not normally occur (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "you are").
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| High-mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link |
| Low-mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Low | Template:IPA link | ||
| Letter | IPA | Pronunciation guide |
|---|---|---|
| lang}} | Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAblink Template:IPAslink |
a is usually open and is pronounced like the a in father when it is the final, unstressed vowel, its pronunciation is indistinct and approaches the sound of the schwa |
| lang}} | Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
stressed, open e is pronounced like the e in bet stressed, closed e is pronounced like the a in fame except that it does not die off into ee unstressed e is pronounced as a schwa |
| lang}} | Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
stressed, open o is pronounced like the o in often stressed, closed o is pronounced like the o in closed except that it does not die off into oo unstressed o is pronounced as a schwa |
| lang}} | Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink |
i is always closed and is pronounced like the ee in meet when it is initial, or preceding another vowel |
| lang}} | Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink |
u is always closed and is pronounced like the oo in boot when it is initial, or preceding another vowel |
ConsonantsEdit
| Letter | IPA | Pronunciation guide |
|---|---|---|
| p | Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
pronounced the same as the p in English spill (not as the p in pill, which is aspirated) voiced after m |
| b | Template:IPAslink | pronounced the same as in English, always geminated when preceded by another vowel |
| t | Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
dental version of the English t as in state (not as the t in tool, which is aspirated) voiced after n |
| d | Template:IPAslink | dental version of the English d |
| c | Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAblink |
when followed by e or i the pronunciation is somewhere between the sh in share and the ch in chore, especially after a vowel otherwise it is like the k in skip (not like the c in call, which is aspirated) in both cases voiced after n |
| g | main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
when followed by e or i the pronunciation is like the g of German, always geminated when preceded by another vowel otherwise it is like the g in gum |
| f | Template:IPAslink | pronounced the same as in English |
| v | Template:IPAslink | pronounced the same as in English |
| s | Template:IPAslink Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink |
main}} pronounced as ds in lads after n pronounced as English z before d or after n |
| main}} Template:IPAblink<ref name="MdF">Template:Citation (in Italian)</ref> |
main}}) zh when followed by a voiced consonant (except {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) | |
| z | Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}} |
unvoiced z (not occurring after n) is pronounced like the ts in jetsam voiced z is pronounced like the ds in lads after n |
| j | Template:IPAslink | referred to as a semi-consonant, is pronounced like English y as in yet |
| l | Template:IPAslink | pronounced the same as in English |
| m | Template:IPAslink | pronounced the same as in English |
| n | Template:IPAslink | pronounced the same as in English; if followed by a consonant, it variously changes its point of articulation |
| r | Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAblink | when between two vowels it sounds very much like the American tt in butter but in reality it is a single tic of a trilled r when at the beginning of a word or when preceded by or followed by another consonant, it is trilled |
| q | main}} | represented by orthographic qu, pronounced the same as in English |
| h | h is always silent and is only used to differentiate words pronounced the same and otherwise spelled alike (e.g. a, ha; anno, hanno) and after g or c to preserve the hard sound when e or i follows (e.g. ce, che; gi, ghi) | |
| x | main}} | pronounced like the cks in backs or like the cchus in Bacchus; this consonant sequence does not occur in native Neapolitan or Italian words |
Digraphs and trigraphsEdit
The following clusters are always geminated if vowel-following.
| Letter | IPA | Pronunciation Guide |
|---|---|---|
| gn | Template:IPAslink | palatal version of the ni in the English onion |
| gl(i) | Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAblink | palatal version of the lli in the English million, most commonly realized like a strong version of y in the English yes. |
| sc | Template:IPAslink | when followed by e or i it is pronounced as the sh in the English ship |
GrammarEdit
Definite articlesEdit
The Neapolitan classical definite articles (corresponding to the English word "the") are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (feminine singular), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (masculine singular) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (plural for both). They are traditionally spelled with the apostrophe to signify the elided sound {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.
Before a word beginning with a consonant:
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Masculine | lang}} | lang}} |
| Feminine | lang}} | lang}} C: |
| Neuter | lang}} C: | ∅ |
"C:" = the initial consonant of the following word is geminated if followed by a vowel.
These definite articles are always pronounced distinctly.
Before a word beginning with a vowel, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} are used for both masculine and feminine, singular and plural. Although both forms can be found, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} form is by far the most common.
In Neapolitan, the gender of a noun is not easily determined by the article, so other means must be used. In the case of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which can be either masculine singular or neuter singular (there is no neuter plural in Neapolitan), the initial consonant of the noun is doubled when it is neuter. For example, the name of a language in Neapolitan is always neuter, so if we see {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} we know it refers to the Neapolitan language, whereas {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} would refer to a Neapolitan man.
Likewise, since {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can be either masculine or feminine plural, when it is feminine plural, the initial consonant of the noun is doubled. For example, consider {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which in Neapolitan is feminine singular, meaning "the list". In the plural, it becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.
There can also be problems with nouns whose singular form ends in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Since plural nouns usually end in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} whether masculine or feminine, the masculine plural is often signaled orthographically, that is, by altering the spelling. As an example, consider the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which means "boy" or (in the feminine form) "girl":
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Masculine | lang}} | lang}} |
| Feminine | lang}} | lang}} |
More will be said about these orthographically changing nouns in the section on Neapolitan nouns.
A couple of notes about consonant doubling:
- Doubling is a function of the article (and certain other words), and these same words may be seen in other contexts without the consonant doubled. More will be said about this in the section on consonant doubling.
- Doubling only occurs when a vowel follows the consonant. No doubling occurs if it is followed by another consonant, such as in the word spagnuolo (Spanish).
Indefinite articlesEdit
The Neapolitan indefinite articles, corresponding to the English a or an, are presented in the following table:
| Masculine | Feminine | |
|---|---|---|
| Before words beginning with a consonant | lang}} | lang}} |
| Before words beginning with a vowel | {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} | |
Verbal conjugationEdit
In Neapolitan there are four finite moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative, and three non-finite modes: infinitive, gerund and participle. Each mood has an active and a passive form. The only auxiliary verbs used in the active form is Template:Wikt-lang (Eng. "to have", It. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), which contrasts with Italian, in which the intransitive and reflexive verbs take {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} for their auxiliary. For example, we have:
- Neapolitan
- Italian
Doubled initial consonantsEdit
In Neapolitan, many times the initial consonant of a word is doubled. This is called syntactic gemination (raddoppiamento sintattico in Italian). This linguistic phenomenon occurs also in Italian and in Finnish.
- All feminine plural nouns, preceded by the feminine plural definite article, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, or any feminine plural adjective, have their initial consonant doubled.
- All neuter singular nouns, when preceded by the neuter singular definite article, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, or by a neuter singular adjective, have their initial consonant doubled.
- In addition, other words also trigger this doubling. Below is a list of words that trigger the doubling of the initial consonant of the following word.
However, when there is a pause after the "trigger" word, the phonological doubling does not occur (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "You are a boy", where {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is a "trigger" word causing doubling of the initial consonant in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, but in the phrase {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Where are you from, boy?", no doubling occurs. Neither does doubling occur when the initial consonant is followed by another consonant (other than {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the Italian language", but {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the Spanish language", where {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is the neuter definite article). This doubling phenomenon happens phonologically (in pronunciation), and the doubling is not always represented in spelling. However, many Neapolitan-language editions do represent syntactic gemination in writing, resulting in many words spelled with initial double consonants. So, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("I am crazy") may also be spelled {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (regardless of the spelling, it is pronounced with syntactic gemination). In Italian and Finnish, syntactic gemination is not reflected in writing.
Words that trigger doubling in pronunciationEdit
- The conjunctions {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} but not {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; but {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The prepositions {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The negation {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, short for {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The indefinites {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- Interrogative {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and relative {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} but not {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- From the verb "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}", {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} but not {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} but {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The number {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The neuter definite article {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, but {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The neuter pronoun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- Demonstrative adjectives {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} which refer to neuter nouns in indefinite quantities (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) but not in definite quantities (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The feminine plural definite article {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- The plural feminine pronoun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, e.g., {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- The plural masculine pronoun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} preceding a verb, but not when {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is an article; in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, the first {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is an article, so it does not trigger doubling; the second {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} does trigger doubling because it is a masculine plural pronoun.
- The locative {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- From the verb {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- From the verb {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- Special case {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
Additional sourcesEdit
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}
- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }} First Course of Neapolitan Language according to the QCER CEFR with the Patronage of City of Naples realized by Dr.Massimiliano Verde "Corso di Lingua e Cultura Napoletana" with a document of study in Neapolitan Language by Dr.Verde First public document in Neapolitan Language of the XXI century according to a text of Dr.Verde; the touristic Map of the III Municipality of Naples in Neapolitan Language:
External linksEdit
- Neapolitan recognized by UNESCO Template:In lang
- Websters Online Dictionary Neapolitan–English
- Interactive Map of languages in Italy
- Neapolitan on-line radio station
- Neapolitan glossary on Wiktionary
- Italian-Neapolitan searchable online dictionary
- Neapolitan basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
- Template:Usurped
- Neapolitan language and culture Template:In lang
- Prosodic detail in Neapolitan Italian by Francesco Cangemi. Berlin: Language Science Press. pp. 187 Free download.
- Consegnato il primo Certificato Europeo di Lingua Napoletana Template:In lang
- Salvatore Argenziano. Il Dialetto Napoletano- Appunti di Grafia e Grammatica Template:In lang
Template:NaplesTemplate:Languages of Italy Template:Romance languages Template:Authority control