Postpartum depression

Template:Short description Template:Distinguish Template:Cs1 config Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox medical condition Template:Pregnancy and mental health Postpartum depression (PPD), also called perinatal depression, is a mood disorder which may be experienced by pregnant or postpartum women.<ref name="Paulson_2010"/> Symptoms include extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, crying episodes, irritability, and extreme changes in sleeping or eating patterns.<ref name="NIH2017">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> PPD can also negatively affect the newborn child.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Pearlstein_2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The exact cause of PPD is unclear, however, it is believed to be due to a combination of physical, emotional, genetic, and social factors such as hormone imbalances and sleep deprivation.<ref name=NIH2017/><ref name=Ste2019>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Soa2008>Template:Cite journal</ref> Risk factors include prior episodes of postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, a family history of depression, psychological stress, complications of childbirth, lack of support, or a drug use disorder.<ref name=NIH2017/> Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms.<ref name="Pearlstein_2009"/> While most women experience a brief period of worry or unhappiness after delivery, postpartum depression should be suspected when symptoms are severe and last over two weeks.<ref name=NIH2017/>

Among those at risk, providing psychosocial support may be protective in preventing PPD.<ref name="AHRQ">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This may include community support such as food, household chores, mother care, and companionship.<ref name="Dennis_2007">Template:Cite journal</ref> Treatment for PPD may include counseling or medications.<ref name="Pearlstein_2009"/> Types of counseling that are effective include interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and psychodynamic therapy.<ref name="Pearlstein_2009"/> Tentative evidence supports the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).<ref name="Pearlstein_2009"/>

Depression occurs in roughly 10 to 20% of postpartum women.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Postpartum depression commonly affects mothers who have experienced stillbirth, live in urban areas and adolescent mothers.<ref name = "Carlson_2023">Template:Cite book</ref> Moreover, this mood disorder is estimated to affect 1% to 26% of new fathers.<ref name="Paulson_2010" /> A different kind of postpartum mood disorder is Postpartum psychosis, which is more severe and occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1,000 women following childbirth.<ref name=Sey2003>Template:Cite journal</ref> Postpartum psychosis is one of the leading causes of the murder of children less than one year of age, which occurs in about 8 per 100,000 births in the United States.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:TOC limit

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of PPD can occur at any time in the first year postpartum.<ref name="OBOS">The Boston Women's Health Book Collective: Our Bodies Ourselves, pages 489–491, New York: Touchstone Book, 2005</ref> Typically, a diagnosis of postpartum depression is considered after signs and symptoms persist for at least two weeks.<ref name=WebMD />

Emotional

• Persistent sadness, anxiousness, or "empty" mood<ref name="OBOS" />
• Severe mood swings<ref name="WebMD">WebMD: Understanding Post Partum Depression {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Frustration, irritability, restlessness, anger<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name="CDC">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Feelings of hopelessness or helplessness<ref name="OBOS" />
• Guilt, shame, worthlessness<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=CDC/>
• Low self-esteem<ref name="OBOS" />
• Numbness, emptiness<ref name="OBOS" />
• Exhaustion<ref name="OBOS" />
• Inability to be comforted<ref name="OBOS" />
• Trouble bonding with the baby<ref name=WebMD />
• Feeling inadequate in taking care of the baby<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=CDC />
• Thoughts of self-harm or suicide<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Behavioral

• Lack of interest or pleasure in usual activities<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=CDC/><ref name=WebMD />
• Low libido<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Changes in appetite<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=CDC/>
• Fatigue, decreased energy<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=CDC/> and motivation<ref name="CDC" />
• Poor self-care<ref name=WebMD />
• Social withdrawal<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=WebMD/>
• Insomnia or excessive sleep<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=WebMD/>
• Worry about harming self, baby, or partner<ref name=WebMD/><ref name=CDC />

Neurobiology

fMRI studies indicate differences in brain activity between mothers with postpartum depression and those without. Mothers diagnosed with PPD tend to have less activity in the left frontal lobe and increased activity in the right frontal lobe when compared with healthy controls. They also exhibit decreased connectivity between vital brain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. Brain activation differences between depressed and nondepressed mothers are more pronounced when stimulated by non-infant emotional cues. Depressed mothers show greater neural activity in the right amygdala toward non-infant emotional cues as well as reduced connectivity between the amygdala and right insular cortex. Recent findings have also identified blunted activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, and insula in mothers with PPD when viewing images of their infants.<ref name="Pawluski_2017">Template:Cite journal</ref>

More robust studies on neural activation regarding PPD have been conducted with rodents than humans. These studies have allowed for greater isolation of specific brain regions, neurotransmitters, hormones, and steroids.<ref name="Pawluski_2017" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Onset and duration

Postpartum depression onset usually begins between two weeks to a month after delivery.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A study done at an inner-city mental health clinic has shown that 50% of postpartum depressive episodes began before delivery.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) PPD is not recognized as a distinct condition but rather a specific type of a major depressive episode. In the DSM-5, the specifier "with peripartum onset" can be applied to a major depressive episode if the onset occurred either during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery.<ref name=":3">Template:Citation</ref> The prevalence of postpartum depression differs across different months after childbirth. Studies done on postpartum depression amongst women in the Middle East show that the prevalence in the first three months of postpartum was 31%, while the prevalence from the fourth to twelfth months of postpartum was 19%.<ref name="Alshikh_Ahmad_2021">Template:Cite journal</ref> PPD may last several months or even a year.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Consequences on maternal and child health

Postpartum depression can interfere with normal maternal-infant bonding and adversely affect acute and long-term child development. Infants of mothers with PPD have higher incidences of excess crying, temperamental issues, and sleeping difficulties. Issues with sleeping in infants may exacerbate or be exacerbated by concurrent PPD in mothers. Maternal outcomes of PPD include withdrawal, disengagement, and hostility. Additional patterns observed in mothers with PPD include lower rates of initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding.<ref name="Pearlstein_2009"/>

Children and infants of PPD-affected mothers experience negative long-term impacts on their cognitive functioning, inhibitory control, and emotional regulation. In cases of untreated PPD, violent behaviors and psychiatric and medical conditions in adolescence have been observed.<ref name="Pearlstein_2009"/>

Suicide rates of women with PPD are lower than those outside of the perinatal period. Fetal or infant death in the first year postpartum has been associated with a higher risk of suicide attempt and higher inpatient psychiatric admissions.<ref name="Pearlstein_2009"/>

Postpartum depression in fathers

Paternal postpartum depression is a poorly understood concept with a limited evidence-base. However, postpartum depression affects 8 to 10% of fathers.<ref name="Scarff-2019">Template:Cite journal</ref> There are no set criteria for men to have postpartum depression.<ref name="Scarff-2019"/> The cause may be distinct in males.<ref name = "Goodman_2004">Template:Cite journal</ref> Causes of paternal postpartum depression include hormonal changes during pregnancy, which can be indicative of father-child relationships.<ref name="Scarff-2019"/> For instance, male depressive symptoms have been associated with low testosterone levels in men.<ref name="Scarff-2019" /> Low prolactin, estrogen, and vasopressin levels have been associated with struggles with father-infant attachment, which can lead to depression in first-time fathers.<ref name="Scarff-2019" /> Symptoms of postpartum depression in men are extreme sadness, fatigue, anxiety, irritability, and suicidal thoughts. Postpartum depression in men is most likely to occur 3–6 months after delivery and is correlated with maternal depression, meaning that if the mother is experiencing postpartum depression, then the father is at a higher risk of developing the illness as well.<ref name="Paulson_Bazemore_2010">Template:Cite journal</ref> Postpartum depression in men leads to an increased risk of suicide, while also limiting healthy infant-father attachment. Men who experience PPD can exhibit poor parenting behaviors, and distress, and reduce infant interaction.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Reduced paternal interaction can later lead to cognitive and behavioral problems in children.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Children as young as 3.5 years old may experience problems with internalizing and externalizing behaviors, indicating that paternal postpartum depression can have long-term consequences.<ref name = "Carlson_2023" /><ref name="Paulson_2010">Template:Cite journal</ref> Furthermore, if children as young as two are not frequently read to, this negative parent-child interaction can harm their expressive vocabulary.<ref name="Paulson_2010" /> A study focusing on low-income fathers found that increased involvement in their child's first year was linked to lower rates of postpartum depression.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Adoptive parents

Postpartum depression may also be experienced by non-biological parents. While not much research has been done regarding post-adoption depression, difficulties associated with parenting post-partum are similar between biological and adoptive parents.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Women who adopt children undergo significant stress and life changes during the postpartum period, similar to biological mothers. This may raise their chance of developing depressive symptoms and anxious tendencies.<ref name="Mott_2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> Postpartum depression presents in adoptive mothers via sleep deprivation similar to birth mothers, but adoptive parents may have added risk factors such as a history of infertility.<ref name="Mott_2011" />

Issues for LGBTQ people

Additionally, preliminary research has shown that childbearing individuals who are part of the LGBTQ community may be more susceptible to prenatal depression and anxiety than cisgender and heterosexual people.<ref name="Kirubarajan_2022">Template:Cite journal</ref>

According to two other studies, LGBTQ people were discouraged from accessing postpartum mental health services due to societal stigma adding a social barrier that heteronormative mothers do not have. Lesbian participants expressed apprehension about receiving a mental health diagnosis because of worries about social stigma and employment opportunities. Concerns were also raised about possible child removal and a parent's diagnosis including mental illness.<ref name="Kirubarajan_2022" /> From the studies conducted thus far, although limited, it is evident that there is a much larger population that experiences depression associated with childbirth than just biological mothers.

Causes

The cause of PPD is unknown. Hormonal and physical changes, personal and family history of depression, and the stress of caring for a new baby all may contribute to the development of postpartum depression.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Evidence suggests that hormonal changes may play a role.<ref name="Schiller_2015">Template:Cite journal</ref> Understanding the neuroendocrinology characteristic of PPD has proven to be particularly challenging given the erratic changes to the brain and biological systems during pregnancy and postpartum. A review of exploratory studies in PPD has observed that women with PPD have more dramatic changes in HPA axis activity, however, the directionality of specific hormone increases or decreases remain mixed.<ref name="Kim_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref> Hormones that have been studied include estrogen, progesterone, thyroid hormone, testosterone, corticotropin releasing hormone, endorphins, and cortisol.<ref name=Soa2008/> Estrogen and progesterone levels drop back to pre-pregnancy levels within 24 hours of giving birth, and that sudden change may cause it.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Aberrant steroid hormone-dependent regulation of neuronal calcium influx via extracellular matrix proteins and membrane receptors involved in responding to the cell's microenvironment might be important in conferring biological risk.<ref name="-2020">Template:Cite journal</ref> The use of synthetic oxytocin, a birth-inducing drug, has been linked to increased rates of postpartum depression and anxiety.<ref name="Kroll-Desrosiers _2017">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Estradiol, which helps the uterus thicken and grow, is thought to contribute to the development of PPD.<ref name="Schiller_2015" /> This is due to its relationship with serotonin. Estradiol levels increase during pregnancy, then drastically decrease following childbirth. When estradiol levels drop postpartum, the levels of serotonin decline as well. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood. Low serotonin levels cause feelings of depression and anxiety. Thus, when estradiol levels are low, serotonin can be low, suggesting that estradiol plays a role in the development of PPD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Profound lifestyle changes that are brought about by caring for the infant are also frequently hypothesized to cause PPD. However, little evidence supports this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without experiencing PPD can nonetheless experience it with their latest child.<ref name="-2000">Template:Cite journal</ref> Despite the biological and psychosocial changes that may accompany pregnancy and the postpartum period, most women are not diagnosed with PPD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Many mothers are unable to get the rest they need to fully recover from giving birth. Sleep deprivation can lead to physical discomfort and exhaustion, which can contribute to the symptoms of postpartum depression.<ref name="Postpartum Depression Facts">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Risk factors

While the causes of PPD are not understood, several factors have been suggested to increase the risk. These risks can be broken down into two categories, biological and psychosocial:

Biological

• Administration of labor-inducing medication synthetic oxytocin<ref name="Kroll-Desrosiers _2017"/>
• Chronic illnesses caused by neuroendocrine irregularities<ref name="Ross_2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Genetic history of PPD<ref name="McCoy_20062">Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Hormone irregularities<ref name="Ross_2009"/>
• Inflammatory illnesses (irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia)<ref name="Ross_2009"/>
• Cigarette smoking<ref name="McCoy_20062"/>
• Gut microbiome<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The risk factors for postpartum depression can be broken down into two categories as listed above, biological and psychosocial.<ref name="Yim_2015">Template:Cite journal</ref> Certain biological risk factors include the administration of oxytocin to induce labor. Chronic illnesses such as diabetes, or Addison's disease, as well as issues with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysregulation (which controls hormonal responses),<ref name="Ross_2009"/> inflammatory processes like asthma or celiac disease, and genetic vulnerabilities such as a family history of depression or PPD. Chronic illnesses caused by neuroendocrine irregularities including irritable bowel syndrome and fibromyalgia typically put individuals at risk for further health complications. However, it has been found that these diseases do not increase the risk for postpartum depression, these factors are known to correlate with PPD.<ref name="Ross_2009" /> This correlation does not mean these factors are causal. Cigarette smoking has been known to have additive effects.<ref name="McCoy_20062"/> Some studies have found a link between PPD and low levels of DHA (an omega-3 fatty acid) in the mother.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A correlation between postpartum thyroiditis and postpartum depression has been proposed but remains controversial. There may also be a link between postpartum depression and anti-thyroid antibodies.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Psychosocial

• Prenatal depression or anxiety<ref name="Beck-2001099">Template:Cite journal</ref>
• A personal or family history of depression<ref name="McCoy_20062"/>
• Moderate to severe premenstrual symptoms<ref name="Stuart-Parrigon_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Stressful life events experienced during pregnancy<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Postpartum blues<ref name="Beck-2001099"/>
• Birth-related psychological trauma
• Birth-related physical trauma
• History of sexual abuse<ref name="Robertson-Blackmore_2013">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Benedict_1999">Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Childhood trauma<ref name="Robertson-Blackmore_2013"/><ref name="Benedict_1999"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Previous stillbirth or miscarriage<ref name="Stuart-Parrigon_2014" />
• Formula-feeding rather than breast-feeding<ref name="McCoy_20062" />
• Low self-esteem<ref name="Beck-2001099"/>
• Childcare or life stress<ref name="Beck-2001099"/>
• Low social support<ref name="Beck-2001099"/>
• Poor marital relationship or single marital status<ref name="Beck-2001099"/>
• Low socioeconomic status<ref name="Beck-2001099"/><ref name="Howell2">Template:Cite journal</ref>
• A lack of strong emotional support from spouse, partner, family, or friends<ref name="Postpartum Depression Facts2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Infant temperament problems/colic<ref name="Beck-2001099"/>
• Unplanned/unwanted pregnancy<ref name="Beck-2001099"/>
• Breastfeeding difficulties<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Maternal age, family food insecurity, and violence against women<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The psychosocial risk factors for postpartum depression include severe life events, some forms of chronic strain, relationship quality, and support from partner and mother.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There is a need for more research regarding the link between psychosocial risk factors and postpartum depression. Some psychosocial risk factors can be linked to the social determinants of health.<ref name="Yim_2015" /> Women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those women with more resources, such as financial.<ref name="Segre2">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Rates of PPD have been shown to decrease as income increases. Women with fewer resources may be more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, increasing the risk of PPD. Women with fewer resources may also include single mothers of low income. Single mothers of low income may have more limited access to resources while transitioning into motherhood. These women already have fewer spending options, and having a child may spread those options even further.<ref name="Segre-2007">Template:Cite journal</ref> Low-income women are frequently trapped in a cycle of poverty, unable to advance, affecting their ability to access and receive quality healthcare to diagnose and treat postpartum depression.<ref name="Segre-2007" />

Studies in the US have also shown a correlation between a mother's race and postpartum depression. African American mothers have been shown to have the highest risk of PPD at 25%, while Asian mothers had the lowest at 11.5%, after controlling for social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby's health. The PPD rates for First Nations, Caucasian, and Hispanic women fell in between.<ref name="Segre2" />

Migration away from a cultural community of support can be a factor in PPD. Traditional cultures around the world prioritize organized support during postpartum care to ensure the mother's mental and physical health, well-being, and recovery.<ref name="Dennis_2007" />

One of the strongest predictors of paternal PPD is having a partner who has PPD, with fathers developing PPD 50% of the time when their female partner has PPD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Sexual orientation<ref name="Ross22">Template:Cite journal</ref> has also been studied as a risk factor for PPD. In a 2007 study conducted by Ross and colleagues, lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample group. It was found that lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores than the heterosexual women in the sample.<ref name="Ross_2009" /> Postpartum depression is more common among lesbian women than heterosexual women, which can be attributed to lesbian women's higher depression prevalence.<ref name="Maccio-2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> Lesbian women have a higher risk of depression because they are more likely to have been treated for depression and to have attempted or contemplated suicide than heterosexual women.<ref name="Maccio-2011" /> These higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers may reflect less social support, particularly from their families of origin, and additional stress due to homophobic discrimination in society.<ref name="Ross32">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Different risk variables linked to postpartum depression (PPD) among Arabic women emphasize regional influences.<ref name="Qandil_2016">Template:Cite journal</ref>  Risk factors that have been identified include the gender of the infant and polygamy.<ref name="Qandil_2016" /> According to three studies conducted in Egypt and one in Jordan, mothers of female babies had a two-to-four-fold increased risk of postpartum depression (PPD) compared to mothers of male babies.<ref name="Qandil_2016" /> Four studies found that conflicts with the mother-in-law are associated with PPD, with risk ratios of 1.8 and 2.7.<ref name="Ayoub_2020">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Studies have also shown a correlation between postpartum depression in mothers living within areas of conflicts, crises, and wars in the Middle East.<ref name="Alshikh_Ahmad_2021" /> Studies in Qatar have found a correlation between lower education levels and higher PPD prevalence.<ref name="Ayoub_2020"/>

According to research done in Egypt and Lebanon, rural residential living is linked to an increased risk. It was found that rural Lebanese women who had Caesarean births had greater PPD rates. On the other hand, Lebanese women in urban areas showed an opposite pattern.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" />

Research conducted in the Middle East has demonstrated a link between PPD risk and mothers who were not informed and who are not given due consideration when decisions are made during childbirth.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" />

There is a call to integrate both a consideration of biological and psychosocial risk factors for PPD when treating and researching the illness.<ref name="Yim_2015"/>

Violence

A meta-analysis reviewing research on the association of violence and postpartum depression showed that violence against women increases the incidence of postpartum depression.<ref name="Wu">Template:Cite journal</ref> About one-third of women throughout the world will experience physical or sexual violence at some point in their lives.<ref name="Western">Template:Cite book</ref> Violence against women occurs in conflict, post-conflict, and non-conflict areas.<ref name=Western /> The research reviewed only looked at violence experienced by women from male perpetrators. Studies from the Middle East suggest that individuals who have experienced family violence are 2.5 times more likely to develop PPD.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" /> Further, violence against women was defined as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women".<ref name=Wu /> Psychological and cultural factors associated with increased incidence of postpartum depression include family history of depression, stressful life events during early puberty or pregnancy, anxiety or depression during pregnancy, and low social support.<ref name="Ross_2009" /><ref name=Wu /> Violence against women is a chronic stressor, so depression may occur when someone is no longer able to respond to the violence.<ref name=Wu />

Diagnosis

Criteria

Postpartum depression in the DSM-5 is known as "depressive disorder with peripartum onset". Peripartum onset is defined as starting anytime during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery.<ref name=":3" /> There is no longer a distinction made between depressive episodes that occur during pregnancy or those that occur after delivery.<ref name="American Psychiatric Association">Template:Cite book</ref> Nevertheless, the majority of experts continue to diagnose postpartum depression as depression with onset anytime within the first year after delivery.<ref name="Stuart-Parrigon_2014"/>

The criteria required for the diagnosis of postpartum depression are the same as those required to make a diagnosis of non-childbirth-related major depression or minor depression. The criteria include at least five of the following nine symptoms, within two weeks:<ref name="American Psychiatric Association"/>

• Feelings of sadness, emptiness, or hopelessness, nearly every day, for most of the day, or the observation of a depressed mood made by others
• Loss of interest or pleasure in activities
• Weight loss or decreased appetite
• Changes in sleep patterns
• Feelings of restlessness
• Loss of energy
• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt
• Loss of concentration or increased indecisiveness
• Recurrent thoughts of death, with or without plans of suicide

Differential diagnosis

Postpartum blues

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Postpartum blues, commonly known as "baby blues," is a transient postpartum mood disorder characterized by milder depressive symptoms than postpartum depression. This type of depression can occur in up to 80% of all mothers following delivery.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Symptoms typically resolve within two weeks. Symptoms lasting longer than two weeks are a sign of a more serious type of depression.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Women who experience "baby blues" may have a higher risk of experiencing a more serious episode of depression later on.<ref name="DSM5">Template:Citation</ref>

Psychosis

Postpartum psychosis is not a formal diagnosis, but is widely used to describe a psychiatric emergency that appears to occur in about 1 in 1000 pregnancies, in which symptoms of high mood and racing thoughts (mania), depression, severe confusion, loss of inhibition, paranoia, hallucinations, and delusions begin suddenly in the first two weeks after delivery; the symptoms vary and can change quickly.<ref name="LancetRev2014">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is different from postpartum depression and maternity blues.<ref name="RoyColl2014">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It may be a form of bipolar disorder.<ref name="WesselooRev2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is important not to confuse psychosis with other symptoms that may occur after delivery, such as delirium. Delirium typically includes a loss of awareness or inability to pay attention.<ref name="DSM5" />

About half of women who experience postpartum psychosis have no risk factors; but a prior history of mental illness, especially bipolar disorder, a history of prior episodes of postpartum psychosis, or a family history put some at a higher risk.<ref name=LancetRev2014/>

Postpartum psychosis often requires hospitalization, where treatment is antipsychotic medications, mood stabilizers, and in cases of strong risk for suicide, electroconvulsive therapy.<ref name=LancetRev2014/>

The most severe symptoms last from 2 to 12 weeks, and recovery takes 6 months to a year.<ref name=LancetRev2014/> Women who have been hospitalized for a psychiatric condition immediately after delivery are at a much higher risk of suicide during the first year after delivery.<ref name="OrsoliniRev2016">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Childbirth-Related/Postpartum Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Parents may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or suffer post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, following childbirth.<ref name="Yildiz-2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> While there has been debate in the medical community as to whether childbirth should be considered a traumatic event, the current consensus is childbirth can be a traumatic event.<ref name="Heyne-2022">Template:Cite journal</ref> The DSM-IV and DSM-5 (standard classifications of mental disorders used by medical professionals) do not explicitly recognize childbirth-related PTSD, but both allow childbirth to be considered as a potential cause of PTSD.<ref name="Heyne-2022"/> Childbirth-related PTSD is closely related to postpartum depression. Research indicates mothers who have childbirth-related PTSD also commonly have postpartum depression.<ref name="Yildiz-2017"/><ref name="Dekel-2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> Childbirth-related PTSD and postpartum depression have some common symptoms. Although both diagnoses overlap in their signs and symptoms, some symptoms specific to postpartum PTSD include being easily startled, recurring nightmares and flashbacks, avoiding the baby or anything that reminds one of birth, aggression, irritability, and panic attacks.<ref name="Ayers-2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> Real or perceived trauma before, during, or after childbirth is a crucial element in diagnosing childbirth-related PTSD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Currently, there are no widely recognized assessments that measure postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder in medical settings. Existing PTSD assessments (such as the DSM-IV) have been used to measure childbirth-related PTSD.<ref name="Yildiz-2017"/> Some surveys exist to measure childbirth-related PTSD specifically, however, these are not widely used outside of research settings.<ref name="Ayers-2018"/>

Approximately 3-6% of mothers in the postpartum period have childbirth-related PTSD.<ref name="Yildiz-2017"/><ref name="Heyne-2022"/><ref name="Van Sieleghem-2022">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Cook-2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> The percentage of individuals with childbirth-related PTSD is approximately 15-18% in high-risk samples (women who experience severe birth complications, have a history of sexual/physical violence, or have other risk factors).<ref name="Yildiz-2017" /><ref name="Cook-2018"/> Research has identified several factors that increase the chance of developing childbirth-related PTSD. These include a negative subjective experience of childbirth, maternal mental health (prenatal depression, perinatal anxiety, acute postpartum depression, and history of psychological problems), history of trauma, complications with delivery and baby (for example emergency cesarean section or NICU admittance), and a low level of social support.<ref name="Dekel-2017"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Childbirth-related PTSD has several negative health effects. Research suggests that childbirth-related PTSD may negatively affect the emotional attachment between mother and child.<ref name="Van Sieleghem-2022"/> However, maternal depression or other factors may also explain this negative effect.<ref name="Van Sieleghem-2022" /> Childbirth-related PTSD in the postpartum period may also lead to issues with the child's social-emotional development.<ref name="Van Sieleghem-2022" /> Current research suggests childbirth-related PTSD results in lower breastfeeding rates and may prevent parents from breastfeeding for the desired amount of time.<ref name="Cook-2018"/>

Screening

Screening for postpartum depression is critical as up to 50% of cases go undiagnosed in the US, emphasizing the significance of comprehensive screening measures.<ref name="Ukatu-2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists suggests healthcare providers consider depression screening for perinatal women.<ref name="ahrq2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> Additionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians screen mothers for PPD at 1-month, 2-month, and 4-month visits.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, many providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up.<ref name=ahrq2011 /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, in Canada, Alberta is the only province with universal PPD screening. This screening is carried out by Public Health nurses with the baby's immunization schedule. In Sweden, Child Health Services offers a free program for new parents that includes screening mothers for PPD at 2 months postpartum. However, there are concerns about adherence to screening guidelines regarding maternal mental health.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, a standardized self-reported questionnaire, may be used to identify women who have postpartum depression.<ref name="pmid3651732">Template:Cite journal</ref> If the new mother scores 13 or more, she likely has PPD and further assessment should follow.<ref name=pmid3651732/>

Healthcare providers may take a blood sample to test if another disorder is contributing to depression during the screening.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale is used within the first week of the newborn being admitted. If mothers receive a score less than 12 they are told to be reassessed because of the depression testing protocol. It is also advised that mothers in the NICU get screened every four to six weeks as their infant remains in the neonatal intensive care unit.<ref name="Davila-2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> Mothers who score between twelve and nineteen on the EPDS are offered two types of support.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The mothers are offered LV treatment provided by a nurse in the NICU and they can be referred to the mental health professional services. If a mother receives a three on item number ten of the EPDS they are immediately referred to the social work team as they may be suicidal.<ref name="Davila-2018" />

It is critical to acknowledge the diversity of patient populations diagnosed with postpartum depression and how this may impact the reliability of the screening tools used.<ref name="Ukatu-2018"/> There are cultural differences in how patients express symptoms of postpartum depression; those in non-western countries exhibit more physical symptoms, whereas those in Western countries have more feelings of sadness. Depending on one's cultural background, symptoms of postpartum depression may manifest differently, and non-Westerners being screened in Western countries may be misdiagnosed because their screening tools do not account for cultural diversity.<ref name="Ukatu-2018" /> Aside from culture, it is also important to consider one's social context, as women with low socioeconomic status may have additional stressors that affect their postpartum depression screening scores.

Prevention

A 2013 Cochrane review found evidence that psychosocial or psychological intervention after childbirth helped reduce the risk of postnatal depression.<ref name="Dennis_2013">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Pubmed2013">Template:Cite journal</ref> These interventions included home visits, telephone-based peer support, and interpersonal psychotherapy.<ref name="Dennis_2013" /> Support is an important aspect of prevention, as depressed mothers commonly state that their feelings of depression were brought on by "lack of support" and "feeling isolated."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Across different cultures, traditional rituals for postpartum care may be preventative for PPD but are more effective when the support is welcomed by the mother.<ref name="Grigoriadis_2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>

In couples, emotional closeness and global support by the partner protect against both perinatal depression and anxiety. In 2014, Alasoom and Koura found that compared to 42.9 percent of women who did not get spousal support, only 14.7 percent of women who got spousal assistance had PPD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Further factors such as communication between the couple and relationship satisfaction have a protective effect against anxiety alone.<ref name="pmid25837550">Template:Cite journal</ref>

In those who are at risk counseling is recommended.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The US Preventative Services Task Force (USPSTF) conducted a review of evidence which supported the use of counseling interventions such as therapy for the prevention of PPD in high-risk groups. Women who are considered to be high-risk include those with a past or present history of depression, or with certain socioeconomic factors such as low income or young age.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Preventative treatment with antidepressants may be considered for those who have had PPD previously. However, as of 2017, the evidence supporting such use is weak.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Community perinatal mental health teams were launched in England in 2016 to improve access to mental healthcare for pregnant women. They aim to prevent and treat episodes of mental illness during pregnancy and after birth. Researchers found that in areas of the country where teams were available, women who had previous contact with psychiatric services (many of whom had a previous diagnosis of anxiety or depression) were more likely to access mental health support and had a lower risk of relapse requiring hospital admission in the year after giving birth.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Treatments

Treatment for mild to moderate PPD includes psychological interventions or antidepressants. Women with moderate to severe PPD would likely experience a greater benefit with a combination of psychological and medical interventions.<ref name="Langan_2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> Light aerobic exercise is useful for mild and moderate cases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Therapy

Both individual social and psychological interventions appear equally effective in the treatment of PPD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Pearlstein, T., Howard, M., Salisbury, A., & Zlotnick, C. (2009). Postpartum depression. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, 200(4), 357-364.</ref> Social interventions include individual counseling and peer support, while psychological interventions include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy (IPT).<ref name="Fitelson_2010">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Smith, E. K., Gopalan, P., Glance, J. B., & Azzam, P. N. (2016). Postpartum depression screening: a review for psychiatrists. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 24(3), 173-187.</ref> Support groups and group therapy options focused on psychoeducation around postpartum depression have been shown to enhance the understanding of postpartum symptoms and often assist in finding further treatment options.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other forms of therapy, such as group therapy, home visits, counseling, and ensuring greater sleep for the mother may also have a benefit.<ref name="OBOS" /><ref name=Ste2019 /><ref>Beck, C. T. (2008). State of the science on postpartum depression: What nurse researchers have contributed—Part 2. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 33(3), 151-156.</ref> While specialists trained in providing counseling interventions often serve this population in need, results from a 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis found that nonspecialist providers, including lay counselors, nurses, midwives, and teachers without formal training in counseling interventions, often provide effective services related to perinatal depression and anxiety<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> which promotes task-sharing and telemedicine.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome problems. Psychotherapy can be super beneficial for mothers or fathers that are dealing with PPD. It allows individuals to talk with someone, maybe even someone who specializes in working with people who are dealing with PPD, and share their emotions and feelings to get help to become more emotionally stable. Psychotherapy proves to show efficacy of psychodynamic interventions for postpartum depression, both in home and clinical settings and both in group and individual format.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown promising results with lower negative parenting behavior scores and lower rates of anxiety, stress, and depression. CBT  may be beneficial for mothers who have limitations in accessing in-person CBT. However, the long-term benefits have not been determined. The implementation of cognitive behavioral therapy happens to be one of the most successful and well-known forms of therapy regarding PPD. In simple terms, cognitive behavioral therapy is a psycho-social intervention that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression and anxiety disorders. While being a wide branch of therapy, it remains very beneficial when tackling specific emotional distress, which is the foundation of PPD. Thus, CBT manages to further reduce or limit the frequency and intensity of emotional outbreaks in the mothers or fathers.

Interpersonal therapy

Interpersonal therapy (IPT) has shown to be effective in focusing specifically on the mother and infant bond.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Psychosocial interventions are effective for the treatment of postpartum depression. Interpersonal therapy otherwise known as IPT is a wonderfully intuitive fit for many women with PPD as they typically experience a multitude of biopsychosocial stressors that are associated with their depression, including several disrupted interpersonal relationships.

Medication

A 2010 review found few studies of medications for treating PPD noting small sample sizes and generally weak evidence.<ref name="Fitelson_2010" /> Some evidence suggests that mothers with PPD will respond similarly to people with major depressive disorder.<ref name="Fitelson_2010" /> There is low-certainty evidence which suggests that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are an effective treatment for PPD.<ref name="Brown_2021">Template:Cite journal</ref> The first-line anti-depressant medication of choice is sertraline, an SSRI, as very little of it passes into the breast milk and, as a result, to the child.<ref name="Ste2019"/> However, a recent study has found that adding sertraline to psychotherapy does not appear to confer any additional benefit.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Therefore, it is not completely clear which antidepressants, if any, are most effective for the treatment of PPD, and for whom antidepressants would be a better option than non-pharmacotherapy.<ref name="Brown_2021" />

Some studies show that hormone therapy may be effective in women with PPD, supported by the idea that the drop in estrogen and progesterone levels post-delivery contributes to depressive symptoms.<ref name="Fitelson_2010" /> However, there is some controversy with this form of treatment because estrogen should not be given to people who are at higher risk of blood clots, which include women up to 12 weeks after delivery.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Additionally, none of the existing studies included women who were breastfeeding.<ref name="Fitelson_2010" /> However, there is some evidence that the use of estradiol patches might help with PPD symptoms.<ref name="Frieder_2019">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Oxytocin is an effective anxiolytic and in some cases antidepressant treatment in men and women. Exogenous oxytocin has only been explored as a PPD treatment with rodents, but results are encouraging for potential application in humans.<ref name="Kim_2014" />

In 2019, the FDA approved brexanolone, a synthetic analog of the neurosteroid allopregnanolone, for use intravenously in postpartum depression. Allopregnanolone levels drop after giving birth, which may lead to women becoming depressed and anxious.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Some trials have demonstrated an effect on PPD within 48 hours from the start of infusion.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Other new allopregnanolone analogs under evaluation for use in the treatment of PPD include zuranolone and ganaxolone.<ref name="Frieder_2019" />

Brexanolone has risks that can occur during administration, including excessive sedation and sudden loss of consciousness, and therefore has been approved under the Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) program.<ref name="FDA_2019">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The mother is to be enrolled before receiving the medication. It is only available to those at certified healthcare facilities with a healthcare provider who can continually monitor the patient. The infusion itself is a 60-hour, or 2.5-day, process. People's oxygen levels are to be monitored with a pulse oximeter. Side effects of the medication include dry mouth, sleepiness, somnolence, flushing, and loss of consciousness. It is also important to monitor for early signs of suicidal thoughts or behaviors.<ref name="FDA_2019" />

In 2023, the FDA approved zuranolone, sold under the brand name Zurzuvae for treatment of postpartum depression. Zuranolone is administered through a pill, which is more convenient than brexanolone, which is administered through an intravenous injection.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Breastfeeding

The use of SSRIs for the treatment of PPD is not a contraindication for breastfeeding. While antidepressants are excreted in breastmilk, the concentrations recorded in breastmilk are very low.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> Extensive research has shown that the use of SSRI's by women who are lactating is safe for the breastfeeding infant/child.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Regarding allopregnanolone, very limited data did not indicate a risk for the infant.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Other

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has shown efficacy in women with severe PPD who have either failed multiple trials of medication-based treatment or cannot tolerate the available antidepressants.<ref name="Langan_2016"/> Tentative evidence supports the use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

As of 2013, it is unclear if acupuncture, massage, bright lights, or taking omega-3 fatty acids are useful.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:Further

Resources

International

Postpartum Support International<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> is the most recognized international resource for those with PPD as well as healthcare providers.<ref name="Honikman-2006">Template:Cite journal</ref> It brings together those experiencing PPD, volunteers, and professionals to share information, referrals, and support networks.<ref name="Honikman-2006" /> Services offered by PSI include the website (with support, education, and local resource info), coordinators for support and local resources, online weekly video support groups in English and Spanish, free weekly phone conferences with chats with experts, educational videos, closed Facebook groups for support, and professional training of healthcare workers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

United States

Educational interventions

Educational interventions can help women struggling with postpartum depression (PPD) to cultivate coping strategies and develop resiliency. The phenomenon of "scientific motherhood" represents the origin of women's education on perinatal care with publications like Ms. circulating some of the first press articles on PPD that helped to normalize the symptoms that women experienced.<ref name="Held-2012">Held, L., & Rutherford, A. (2012). Can't a mother sing the blues? Postpartum depression and the construction of motherhood in late 20th-century America. History of psychology, 15(2), 107.</ref> Feminist writings on PPD from the early seventies shed light on the darker realities of motherhood and amplified the lived experiences of mothers with PPD.

Instructional videos have been popular among women who turn to the internet for PPD treatment, especially when the videos are interactive and get patients involved in their treatment plans.<ref name="Maloni-2013">Maloni, J. A., Przeworski, A., & Damato, E. G. (2013). Web recruitment and internet use and preferences reported by women with postpartum depression after pregnancy complications. Archives of psychiatric nursing, 27(2), 90-95.</ref> Since the early 2000s, video tutorials on PPD have been integrated into many web-based training programs for individuals with PPD and are often considered a type of evidence-based management strategy for individuals.<ref>Baker, C. D., Kamke, H., O'Hara, M. W., & Stuart, S. (2009). Web-based training for implementing evidence-based management of postpartum depression. The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 22(5), 588-589.</ref> This can take the form of objective-based learning, detailed exploration of case studies, resource guides for additional support and information, etc.<ref name="Maloni-2013" />

Government-funded programs

The National Child and Maternal Health Education Program functions as a larger education and outreach program supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) and the National Institute of Health. The NICHD has worked alongside organizations like the World Health Organization to conduct research on the psychosocial development of children with part of their efforts going towards the support of mothers' health and safety.<ref>World Health Organization. (1985). WHO/NICHD Planning Meeting on the Use of Longitudinal Data Banks for Research on Child Growth and Psychosocial Development, AMRO, Washington, DC, 1–2 October 1984: report of the meeting (No. MNH/MCH/85.1. Unpublished). World Health Organization.</ref> Training and education services are offered through the NICHD to equip women and their healthcare providers with evidence-based knowledge of PPD.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Other initiatives include the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) whose disaster relief program provides medical assistance at both the national and local level.<ref name="McCance-2018">McCance-Katz, E. F. (2018). The substance abuse and mental health services administration (SAMHSA): new directions. Psychiatric services, 69(10), 1046-1048.</ref> The disaster relief fund not only helps to raise awareness of the benefits of having healthcare professionals screen for PPD but also helps childhood professionals (home visitors and early care providers) develop the skills to diagnose and prevent PPD.<ref name="McCance-2018" /> The Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation (IECMH) center is a related technical assistance program that utilizes evidence-based treatment services to address issues of PPD. The IECMH facilitates parenting and home visit programs, early care site interventions with parents and children, and a variety of other consultation-based services.<ref>National Center for Children in Poverty. Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health in Home Visiting. NCCP; Bank Street Graduate School of Education. https://www.nccp.org/mental-health-in-home-visiting/</ref> The IECMH's initiatives seek to educate home visitors on screening protocols for PPD as well as ways to refer depressed mothers to professional help.

Links to government-funded programs

• [1] www.nichd.nih.gov/ncmhep
• [2] www.nichd.nih.gov
• [3] www.samhsa.gov
• [4] www.samhsa.gov/iecmhc

Psychotherapy

Therapeutic methods of intervention can begin as early as a few days post-birth when most mothers are discharged from hospitals. Research surveys have revealed a paucity of professional, and emotional support for women struggling in the weeks following delivery despite there being a heightened risk for PPD for new mothers during this transitional period.<ref name="Miller-2002">Miller, L. J. (2002). Postpartum depression. Jama, 287(6), 762-765.</ref>

Community-based support

A lack of social support has been identified as a barrier to seeking help for postpartum depression.<ref name="Thomas-2014">Template:Cite journal</ref> Peer support programs have been identified as an effective intervention for women experiencing symptoms of postpartum depression.<ref name="Prevatt-2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> In-person, online, and telephone support groups are available to both women and men throughout the United States. Peer support models are appealing to many women because they are offered in a group and outside of the mental health setting.<ref name="Prevatt-2018" /> The website Postpartum Progress provides a comprehensive list of support groups separated by state and includes the contact information for each group.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The National Alliance on Mental Illness lists a virtual support group titled "The Shades of Blue Project," which is available to all women via the submission of a name and email address.<ref name="SBlue-2022">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Additionally, NAMI recommends the website "National Association of Professional and Peer Lactation Supports of Color" for mothers in need of a lactation supporter.<ref name="NAPPLSC-2022">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Lactation assistance is available either online or in-person if there is support nearby.<ref name="NAPPLSC-2022" />

Personal narratives & memoirs

Postpartum Progress is a blog focused on being a community of mothers talking openly about postpartum depression and other mental health conditions associated.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Story-telling and online communities reduce the stigma around PPD and promote peer-based care. Postpartum Progress is specifically relevant to people of color and queer folks due to an emphasis on cultural competency.<ref name="Khúc-2019">Khúc, Mimi. The Asian American Literary Review. Volume 10, Issue 2, Fall/winter 2019, "Open in Emergency : a Special Issue on Asian American Mental Health." Edited by Mimi Khúc, 2nd edition., The Asian American Literary Review, Inc., 2019.</ref>

Hotlines & telephone interviews

Hotlines, chat lines, and telephone interviews offer immediate, emergency support for those experiencing PPD. Telephone-based peer support can be effective in the prevention and treatment of postpartum depression among women at high risk.<ref name="Dennis-2006">Template:Cite journal</ref> Established examples of telephone hotlines include the National Alliance on Mental Illness: 800-950-NAMI (6264),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 800-273-TALK (8255),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Postpartum Support International: 800-944-4PPD (4773),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and SAMHSA's National Hotline: 1-800-662-HELP (4357).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Postpartum Health Alliance has an immediate, 24/7 support line in San Diego/San Diego Access and Crisis Line at (888) 724–7240, in which you can talk with mothers who have recovered from PPD and trained providers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

However, hotlines can lack cultural competency which is crucial in quality healthcare, specifically for people of color. Calling the police or 911, specifically for mental health crises, is dangerous for many people of color. Culturally and structurally competent emergency hotlines are a huge need in PPD care.<ref name="Khúc-2019" />

• National Alliance on Mental Illness: 800-950-NAMI (6264)
• National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 800-273-TALK (8255)
• Postpartum Support International: 800-944-4PPD (4773)
• SAMHSA's National Hotline: 1-800-662-HELP (4357)

Self-care & well-being activities

Women demonstrated an interest in self-care and well-being in an online PPD prevention program. Self-care activities, specifically music therapy, are accessible to most communities and valued among women as a way to connect with their children and manage symptoms of depression. Well-being activities associated with being outdoors, including walking and running, were noted amongst women as a way to help manage mood.<ref name="Ramphos-2019">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Accessibility to care

Those with PPD come across many help-seeking barriers, including lack of knowledge, stigma about symptoms, as well as health service barriers.<ref name="Dennis-2006" /> There are also attitudinal barriers to seeking treatment, including stigma.<ref name="Prevatt-2018" /> Interpersonal relationships with friends and family, as well as institutional and financial obstacles, serve as help-seeking barriers. A history of mistrust within the United States healthcare system or negative health experiences can influence one's willingness and adherence to seek postpartum depression treatment.<ref name="Abrams-2009">Template:Cite journal</ref> Cultural responses must be adequate in PPD healthcare and resources.<ref name="Thomas-2014" /> Representation and cultural competency are crucial to equitable healthcare for PPD.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Different ethnic groups may believe that healthcare providers will not respect their cultural values or religious practices, which influences their willingness to use mental health services or be prescribed antidepressant medications.<ref name="Abrams-2009"/> Additionally, resources for PPD are limited and often don't incorporate what mothers would prefer.<ref name="Ramphos-2019" /> The use of technology can be a beneficial way to provide mothers with resources because it is accessible and convenient.<ref name="Ramphos-2019" />

Epidemiology

North America

United States

Within the United States, the prevalence of postpartum depression was lower than the global approximation at 11.5% but varied between states from as low as 8% to as high as 20.1%.<ref name="Ko_2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> The highest prevalence in the US is found among women who are American Indian/Alaska Natives or Asian/Pacific Islanders, possess less than 12 years of education, are unmarried, smoke during pregnancy, experience over two stressful life events, or have full-term infant is low-birthweight or was admitted to a NICU. While US prevalence decreased from 2004 to 2012, it did not decrease among American Indian/Alaska Native women or those with full term, low-birthweight infants.<ref name="Ko_2017" />

Even with the variety of studies, it is difficult to find the exact rate as approximately 60% of US women are not diagnosed and of those diagnosed, approximately 50% are not treated for PPD.<ref name="Ko_2017" /> Cesarean section rates did not affect the rates of PPD. While there is discussion of postpartum depression in fathers, there is no formal diagnosis for postpartum depression in fathers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Canada

Canada has one of the largest refugee resettlement in the world with an equal percentage of women to men. This means that Canada has a disproportionate percentage of women who develop postpartum depression since there is an increased risk among the refugee population.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In a blind study, where women had to reach out and participate, around 27% of the sample population had symptoms consistent with postpartum depression without even knowing.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Also found that on average 8.46 women had minor and major PPDS was found to be 8.46 and 8.69% respectively. The main factors that were found to contribute to this study were the stress during pregnancy, the availability of support after, and a prior diagnosis of depression were all found to be factors.<ref name="Lanes_2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> Canada has specific population demographics that also involve a large amount of immigrant and indigenous women which creates a specific cultural demographic localized to Canada. In this study, researchers found that these two populations were at significantly higher risk compared to "Canadian-born non-indigenous mothers".<ref name="Lanes_2011" /> This study found that risk factors such as low education, low-income cut-off, taking antidepressants, and low social support are all factors that contribute to the higher percentage of these populations developing PPDS.<ref name="Lanes_2011" /> Specifically, indigenous mothers had the most risk factors than immigrant mothers with non-indigenous Canadian women being closer to the overall population.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

South America

A main issue surrounding PPD is the lack of study and the lack of reported prevalence that is based on studies developed in Western economically developed countries.<ref name="Halbreich_2006">Template:Cite journal</ref> In countries such as Brazil, Guyana, Costa Rica, Italy, Chile, and South Africa reports are prevalent, around 60%. An itemized research analysis put a mean prevalence at 10-15% percent but explicitly stated that cultural factors such as perception of mental health and stigma could be preventing accurate reporting.<ref name="Halbreich_2006" /> The analysis for South America shows that PPD occurs at a high rate looking comparatively at Brazil (42%) Chile (4.6-48%) Guyana and Colombia (57%) and Venezuela (22%).<ref name="Evagorou_2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> In most of these countries, PPD is not considered a serious condition for women and therefore there is an absence of support programs for prevention and treatment in health systems.<ref name="Evagorou_2016" /> Specifically, in Brazil PPD is identified through the family environment whereas in Chile PPD manifests itself through suicidal ideation and emotional instability.<ref name="Evagorou_2016" /> In both cases, most women feel regret and refuse to take care of the child showing that this illness is serious for both the mother and child.<ref name="Evagorou_2016" />

Asia

From a selected group of studies found from a literature search, researchers discovered many demographic factors of Asian populations that showed significant association with PPD. Some of these include the age of the mother at the time of childbirth as well as the older age at marriage.<ref name="Mehta_2014">Template:Cite journal</ref> Being a migrant and giving birth to a child overseas has also been identified as a risk factor for PPD.<ref name="Mehta_2014" /> Specifically for Japanese women who were born and raised in Japan but who gave birth to their child in Hawaii, USA, about 50% of them experienced emotional dysfunction during their pregnancy.<ref name="Mehta_2014" /> All women who gave birth for the first time and were included in the study experienced PPD.<ref name="Mehta_2014" /> In immigrant Asian Indian women, the researchers found a minor depressive symptomatology rate of 28% and an additional major depressive symptomatology rate of 24% likely due to different healthcare attitudes in different cultures and distance from family leading to homesickness.<ref name="Mehta_2014" />

In the context of Asian countries, premarital pregnancy is an important risk factor for PPD. This is because it is considered highly unacceptable in most Asian cultures as there is a highly conservative attitude toward sex among Asian people than people in the West.<ref name="Mehta_2014" /> In addition, conflicts between mother and daughter-in-law are notoriously common in Asian societies as traditionally for them, marriage means the daughter-in-law joining and adjusting to the groom's family completely. These conflicts may be responsible for the emergence of PPD.<ref name="Mehta_2014" /> Regarding the gender of the child, many studies have suggested dissatisfaction with an infant's gender (birth of a baby girl) is a risk factor for PPD. This is because, in some Asian cultures, married couples are expected by the family to have at least one son to maintain the continuity of the bloodline which might lead a woman to experience PPD if she cannot give birth to a baby boy.<ref name="Mehta_2014" />

The Middle East

With a prevalence of 27%, postpartum depression amongst mothers in the Middle East is higher than in the Western world and other regions of the world.<ref name="Alshikh_Ahmad_2021" /> Despite the high number of postpartum depression cases in the region in comparison to other areas, there is a large literature gap in correlation with the Arab region, and no studies have been conducted in the Middle East studying interventions and prevention to tackle postpartum depression in Arab mothers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Countries within the Arab region had a postpartum depression prevalence ranging from 10% to 40%, with a PPD prevalence in Qatar at 18.6%, UAE between 18% and 24%, Jordan between 21.2 and 22.1, Lebanon at 21%, Saudi Arabia between 10.1 and 10.3, and Tunisia between 13.2% and 19.2%, according to studies carried out in these countries.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" /><ref name="Haque_2015">Template:Cite journal</ref>

There are also examples of nations with noticeably higher rates, such as Iran at 40.2%, Bahrain at 37.1%, and Turkey at 27%. The high prevalence of postpartum depression in the region may be attributed to socio-economic and cultural factors involving social and partner support, poverty, and prevailing societal views on pregnancy and motherhood.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" /> Another factor is related to the region's women's lack of access to care services because many societies within the region do not prioritize mental health and do not perceive it as a serious issue. The prevailing crises and wars within some countries of the region, lack of education, polygamy, and early childbearing are additional factors.<ref name="Ayoub_2020"/><ref name="Haque_2015" /><ref name="Alshikh_Ahmad_2021" /> Fertility rates in Palestine are noticeably high; higher fertility rates have been connected to a possible pattern where birth rates increase after violent episodes. Research conducted on Arab women indicates that more cases of postpartum depression are associated with increased parity.<ref name="Qandil_2016"/> A study found that the most common pregnancy and birth variable reported to be associated with PPD in the Middle East was an unplanned or unwanted pregnancy while having a female baby instead of a male baby is also discussed as a factor with 2 to 4 times higher risk.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" />

Europe

There is a general assumption that Western cultures are homogenous and that there are no significant differences in psychiatric disorders across Europe and the USA. However, in reality, factors associated with maternal depression, including work and environmental demands, access to universal maternity leave, healthcare, and financial security, are regulated and influenced by local policies that differ across countries.<ref name="Di_Florio_2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, European social policies differ from country to country contrary to the US, all countries provide some form of paid universal maternity leave and free healthcare.<ref name="Di_Florio_2017" /> Studies also found differences in symptomatic manifestations of PPD between European and American women.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Women from Europe reported higher scores of anhedonia, self-blaming, and anxiety, while women from the US disclosed more severe insomnia, depressive feelings, and thoughts of self-harming.<ref name="Di_Florio_2017" /> Additionally, there are differences in prescribing patterns and attitudes towards certain medications between the US and Europe which are indicative of how different countries approach treatment, and their different stigmas.<ref name="Di_Florio_2017" />

Africa

Africa, like all other parts of the world, struggles with the burden of postpartum depression. Current studies estimate the prevalence to be 15-25% but this is likely higher due to a lack of data and recorded cases. The magnitude of postpartum depression in South Africa is between 31.7% and 39.6%, in Morocco between 6.9% and 14%, in Nigeria between 10.7% and 22.9%, in Uganda 43%, in Tanzania 12%, in Zimbabwe 33%, in Sudan 9.2%, in Kenya between 13% and 18.7% and, 19.9% for participants in Ethiopia according to studies carried out in these countries among postpartum mothers between the ages of 17–49.<ref name="Atuhaire 2020">Template:Cite journal</ref> This demonstrates the gravity of this problem in Africa and the need for postpartum depression to be taken seriously as a public health concern in the continent. Additionally, each of these studies was conducted using Western-developed assessment tools. Cultural factors can affect diagnosis and can be a barrier to assessing the burden of disease.<ref name="Atuhaire 2020"/> Some recommendations to combat postpartum depression in Africa include considering postpartum depression as a public health problem that is neglected among postpartum mothers. Investing in research to assess the actual prevalence of postpartum depression, and encourage early screening, diagnosis, and treatment of postpartum depression as an essential aspect of maternal care throughout Africa.<ref name="Atuhaire 2020"/>

Issues in reporting prevalence

Most studies regarding PPD are done using self-report screenings which are less reliable than clinical interviews. This use of self-reporting may have results that underreport symptoms and thus postpartum depression rates.<ref name="Hahn-Holbrook_2018">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Ko_2017" />

Furthermore, the prevalence of postpartum depression in Arab countries exhibits significant variability, often due to diverse assessment methodologies.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" /> In a review of twenty-five studies examining PPD, differences in assessment methods, recruitment locations, and timing of evaluations complicate prevalence measurement.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" /> For instance, the studies varied in their approach, with some using a longitudinal panel method tracking PPD at multiple points during pregnancy and postpartum periods, while others employed cross-sectional approaches to estimate point or period prevalences. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was commonly used across these studies, yet variations in cutoff scores further determined the results of prevalence.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" />

For example, a study in Kom Ombo, Egypt, reported a rate of 73.7% for PPD, but the small sample size of 57 mothers and the broad measurement timeframe spanning from two weeks to one year postpartum contributes to the challenge of making definitive prevalence conclusions (2). This wide array of assessment methods and timing significantly impacts the reported rates of postpartum depression.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" />

History

Prior to the 19th century

Western medical science's understanding and construction of postpartum depression have evolved over the centuries. Ideas surrounding women's moods and states have been around for a long time,<ref name="Tasca_2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> typically recorded by men. In 460 B.C., Hippocrates wrote about puerperal fever, agitation, delirium, and mania experienced by women after childbirth.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Hippocrates' ideas still linger in how postpartum depression is seen today.<ref name="Brockington_2005"/>

A woman who lived in the 14th century, Margery Kempe, was a Christian mystic.<ref name="Kempe_2015">Template:Cite book</ref> She was a pilgrim known as "Madwoman" after having a tough labor and delivery.<ref name="Kempe_2015" /> There was a long physical recovery period during which she started descending into "madness" and became suicidal.<ref name="Kempe_2015" /> Based on her descriptions of visions of demons and conversations she wrote about that she had with religious figures like God and the Virgin Mary, historians have identified what Margery Kempe was experiencing as "postnatal psychosis" and not postpartum depression.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This distinction became important to emphasize the difference between postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. A 16th-century physician, Castello Branco, documented a case of postpartum depression without the formal title as a relatively healthy woman with melancholy after childbirth, remained insane for a month, and recovered with treatment.<ref name="Brockington_2005">Template:Cite book</ref> Although this treatment was not described, experimental treatments began to be implemented for postpartum depression for the centuries that followed.<ref name="Brockington_2005" /> Connections between female reproductive function and mental illness would continue to center around reproductive organs from this time through to the modern age, with a slowly evolving discussion around "female madness".<ref name="Tasca_2012"/>

19th century and after

With the 19th century came a new attitude about the relationship between female mental illness and pregnancy, childbirth, or menstruation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The famous short story, "The Yellow Wallpaper", was published by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in this period. In the story, an unnamed woman journals her life when she is treated by her physician husband, John, for hysterical and depressive tendencies after the birth of their baby.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Gilman wrote the story to protest the societal oppression of women as the result of her own experience as a patient.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Also during the 19th century, gynecologists embraced the idea that female reproductive organs, and the natural processes they were involved in, were at fault for "female insanity."<ref name="Taylor_1996">Template:Cite book</ref> Approximately 10% of asylum admissions during this period are connected to "puerperal insanity," the named intersection between pregnancy or childbirth and female mental illness.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It wasn't until the onset of the twentieth century that the attitude of the scientific community shifted once again: the consensus amongst gynecologists and other medical experts was to turn away from the idea of diseased reproductive organs and instead towards more "scientific theories" that encompassed a broadening medical perspective on mental illness.<ref name="Taylor_1996" />

20th century and beyond

The inseparability of the structural and the biological, the medical and the political, the exaltations and challenges of motherhood, all point to not just a history of suffering and treatment, but one of advocacy. The history of groundbreaking women health's activism between the 1970s and 2020s, in addition to the story of upholding the idealization of motherhood, is a poignant story of pushing against the status quo and also pragmatically embracing the legitimizing power of medicalization and political neutrality.<ref name="Moran_2024">Template:Cite book</ref> The phenomenon of baby blues was first named amid the surge of births following World War II. Baby blues or postpartum blues during the time following World War II hold an evolved understanding in the 21st century, and is understood as emotional distress of fluctuations that begin a couple days postpartum and can last up to two weeks. Baby blues is considered to affect perhaps 80% of new moms. While women experiences baby blues in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s were often counseled to treat themselves with a new hat from the milliner or some other pick-me-up, in the 2020s, women are reminded about the role of hormones and are often encouraged to prioritize self care, and to rest as they adjust. Between the 1970s and 1990s, psychological professionals more frequently distinguished between subclinical baby blues, and the more serious medical issues of postpartum depression. The 1980s was a decade of depression in America, with huge increases in general depression diagnoses and in antidepressant availability.

Though there have been attempts at defining postpartum depression, doctors now consider it amongst a host of different illnesses, and refer to call the issues postpartum, Postpartum Mood and Anxiety Disorders (PMAD) rather than postpartum depression.<ref name="Moran R_2024">Template:Cite book</ref> There is still no standalone diagnosis in the American Psychological Associations Bible, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. Rather there is an umbrella of conditions. Advocates and clinicians mention PMADs as including mental distress during pregnancy in addition to the postpartum and around lactation, as well as an array of disorders beyond just depression. PMADs include postpartum obsessive-compulsive disorder, often with moms counting ounces of pumped milk, and obsessing over if it was enough and how to heal aching breast and chapped and blistered nipples, and postpartum anxiety, such as an excess of worries, like dropping the baby. A very rare percentage will show signs of postpartum psychosis that has led to issues such as infanticide. PMADs help to create an overarching recognition of many issues new parents, especially new mothers worry about, beyond the extent of exhaustion and sleep deprivation, the overwhelm of physical pain after birth, the vast changes in hormones and body conformation, the need to keep watch on the size of blood clots, the possibility of birth trauma, the social stresses and pressures, massive changes in relationship status with your husband, partner, and family, if you have one, and a constraint and limitation on familial and community resources for support, and lessons and guidance, leaving a new mother alone and vulnerable. On top of that, for wage-earning mothers, there is additional stress navigating working or not working, how much leave you have and how you will atone for taking that leave if you are lucky enough to have it, how to survive you do not take leave, if your leave is unpaid, or you have social opinions and naysayers to you taking leave. Then there is the stress of feeding an infant, including balancing feeding needs with paid work. Some of the difficulties of defining postpartum mood disorders comes from the long list of some of these examples, but also include an incomplete list of other challenges and contributing factors. Doctors are wary to clinically diagnosis, but there exists a fine line between, for instance mild obsession with counting ounces of milk, and postpartum obsessive-compulsive disorder. There is a fine line between worrying occasionally that you might drop your baby, or hold your baby incorrectly, and the feelings of some parents that veers into intrusive thoughts, or all-consuming panic attacks, and chronic anxiety. There is a fine line between an exhausted lethargic parent simply needing a very long nap or many long naps, and there also being the presence of clinical depression, testable with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS).<ref name="Hoffman_2020">Template:Cite book</ref>

In the 1990s, the largest advocacy organization of postpartum advocates, Postpartum Support International, began addressed postpartum politics arguing that postpartum depression is not just an illness, but the most common complication of pregnancy.

There are other health measures monitored for in pregnancy as more screenings and health concerns have been introduced with advanced research in obstetrics and gynecology, perinatal, maternal-fetal medicine, neonatology, and pediatrics. A long list of these monitored complications follows.

There are the additional screenings that pregnant women have to worry, such as general screenings with a Pap smear, complete blood count, HIV screening, urine culture, rubella titer, ABO, Rh typing, hepatitis B screening, testing for all sexually transmitted diseases, gestational diabetes, and group B streptococcus.<ref name="Ladewig Davidson & London_2017">Template:Cite book</ref>

Then there is other monitoring, include regular blood pressure to monitor for preeclampsia, ultrasounds to help monitor the position of the placenta and for placenta previa, monitoring and screening chorionic villus sampling (CVS), preeclampsia, eclampsia, and sampling of amniotic fluid via amniocentesis for health and maturity of the fetus, monitoring the change in the pelvic organs especially for intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) in,<ref name="Butler, Amin, Kim, & Fitzmaurice_2019">Template:Cite book</ref> and general monitoring of changes in a mother's pelvic organs via various testing including Goodell sign, Chadwick sign, Hegar sign, McDonald sign, uterine enlargement, Braun von Fernwald sign, uterine souffle, chloasma or melasma, linea nigra, changes in nipples, abdominal striae, ballottement, monitoring hormone levels and changes.<ref name="Ladewig London & Davidson_2017">Template:Cite book</ref>

Continuing, there is the monitoring of the fetus for quickening, fetal heart tones (FHT), fetal heart rate (FHR), fetal blood sampling (FBS), fetal altitude, fetal lie, fetal breathing movements (FBM), fetal movement record (FMR)/fetal movement count (FMC) fetal growth and movement, fetal position, and fetal positioning.<ref name="Carlson_2019">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Woodward, Kennedy, & Sohaey_2021">Template:Cite book</ref>

Then mothers have to worry about screenings each trimester, including first-trimester screenings for defects of trisomies through testing such as nuchal translucency testing (NTT), and serum testing for PAPP-A and beta-hCG, and later trimester monitoring for any pre-labor ruptures of membranes (PROM) that can lead to an abortion or if a premature pre-labor rupture of membrane (PPROM) before 37 weeks can lead to a preterm birth, if it occurs when the fetus is viable.<ref name="Butler, Amin, Fitzmaurice, & Kim_2019">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Woodward, Sohaey, & Kennedy_2021">Template:Cite book</ref>

Thus, there is a lot of stress on the mother and non-credit given to what her body goes through; hence starting after the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, and with headway made in the 1970s and 1980s, even more activism in the 1990s, promoted greater advocacy by postpartum groups, political advocates, medical clinicians, that emphasized how necessary and important it is for emotional and mental health screening, during pregnancy and in postpartum that can run anywhere from the first two weeks to the first 18 months. Mothers goes through often inconceivable changes in their bodies to bring a life into the world, and that can be overwhelming and stressful especially to any first time mom. This is why it is critical to continue to advocate for more screenings, support services, and self-care opportunities, that help alleviate the burden of motherhood.

The 21st century

The first quarter of the 21st century has brought about regression in many women's health gains of the 20th century. As 21st-century legislation has led to deep divides and debate in regard to abortion politics and who makes decisions over a woman's body and in regard to a woman's health.<ref name="Hoffman_2018">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There needs to be more advocacy for universal parental paid leave, more equality and increases in women's pay where discrimination continues to persist, and additional opportunities for paid time off for family needs, medical needs, and mental health needs. For new parents, better health insurance plans and leeway and lenience for parents need to be tolerated and respected, especially during the first five years, until a child enters school systems. With this, there also need to be better options for childcare—a program that often ends mid-day—and more flexibility from employers on employees to decrease the stress of working obligations and the need to pick up a child from childcare, which can exacerbate postpartum mental health conditions (PMHCs). Additional after-school care programs that do not leave parents feeling like they are neglecting their children simply in financially supporting the family would also help alleviate PMHCs, especially for working women who are the primary financial provider and/or go from previously one full-time job to two full-time jobs, with only one being paid and financially compensated.<ref name="Scholar_2016">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Coombs_2021">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Lojek_2024">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="WHOPostnatalPostpartumCare_2008">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In a visual timeline by the Maternal Mental Health Leadership Alliance (MMHLA), a 501(c)(3) nonpartisan nonprofit organization leading national efforts to improve maternal mental health in the United States by advocating for policies, building partnerships, and curating information, there have been numerous advancements in services and legislation,<ref name="MMHLA_2025">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> including the 21st Century Cures Act signed into law in December 2016.<ref name="Congress_2016">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Women's Healthcare_2016">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Policy Center_2025">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> And, as of 2024, family and medical leave has been cleared for use of PMHCs, including postpartum depression.<ref name="Applewhaite_2024">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This is a start, but there is still much progress to be made, given the consideration that of 41 countries, only the United States lacks paid parental leave, though it offers unpaid leave under the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA).<ref name="Livingston_2019">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Nonacs_2023">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Williamson_2024">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Williamson_2025">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There is currently no federal law providing or guaranteeing access to paid family and medical leave for workers in the private sector, especially during the postpartum period. However, some states have their own paid leave programs and requirements for companies to provide paid parental leave.<ref name="Women's Bureau_2025">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Paid leave advocates realize that paid leave, as opposed to unpaid leave, helps to alleviate some of the stress and overwhelming burden tacked on to the postpartum period that can exacerbate PMHCs and can inhibit or make it more difficult to return to work after maternity leave.<ref name="Franzoi_2024">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Society and culture

Legal recognition

Recently, postpartum depression has become more widely recognized in society. In the US, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act included a section focusing on research into postpartum conditions including postpartum depression.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Some argue that more resources in the form of policies, programs, and health objectives need to be directed to the care of those with PPD.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Role of stigma

When stigma occurs, a person is labeled by their illness and viewed as part of a stereotyped group. There are three main elements of stigmas, 1) problems of knowledge (ignorance or misinformation), 2) problems of attitudes (prejudice), and 3) problems of behavior (discrimination).<ref name="Thorsteinsson_2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> Specifically regarding PPD, it is often left untreated as women frequently report feeling ashamed about seeking help and are concerned about being labeled as a "bad mother" if they acknowledge that they are experiencing depression.<ref name="Thorsteinsson_2018" /> Although there has been previous research interest in depression-related stigma, few studies have addressed PPD stigma. One study studied PPD stigma by examining how an education intervention would impact it. They hypothesized that an education intervention would significantly influence PPD stigma scores.<ref name="Thorsteinsson_2018" /> Although they found some consistency with previous mental health stigma studies, for example, that males had higher levels of personal PPD stigma than females, most of the PPD results were inconsistent with other mental health studies.<ref name="Thorsteinsson_2018" /> For example, they hypothesized that education intervention would lower PPD stigma scores, but in reality, there was no significant impact, and also familiarity with PPD was not associated with one's stigma towards people with PPD.<ref name="Thorsteinsson_2018" /> This study was a strong starting point for further PPD research but indicates more needs to be done to learn what the most effective anti-stigma strategies are specifically for PPD.<ref name="Thorsteinsson_2018" />

Postpartum depression is still linked to significant stigma. This can also be difficult when trying to determine the true prevalence of postpartum depression. Participants in studies about PPD carry their beliefs, perceptions, cultural context, and stigma of mental health in their cultures with them which can affect data.<ref name="Halbreich_2006"/> The stigma of mental health - with or without support from family members and health professionals - often deters women from seeking help for their PPD. When medical help is achieved, some women find the diagnosis helpful and encourage a higher profile for PPD amongst the health professional community.<ref name="Halbreich_2006" />

Cultural beliefs

Postpartum depression can be influenced by sociocultural factors.<ref name="Halbreich_2006" /> There are many examples of particular cultures and societies that hold specific beliefs about PPD.

Malay culture holds a belief in Hantu Meroyan; a spirit that resides in the placenta and amniotic fluid.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> When this spirit is unsatisfied and venting resentment, it causes the mother to experience frequent crying, loss of appetite, and trouble sleeping, known collectively as "sakit meroyan". The mother can be cured with the help of a shaman, who performs a séance to force the spirits to leave.<ref name="-20092">Template:Cite book</ref>

Some cultures believe that the symptoms of postpartum depression or similar illnesses can be avoided through protective rituals in the period after birth. These may include offering structures of organized support, hygiene care, diet, rest, infant care, and breastfeeding instruction.<ref name="Dennis_2007"/> The rituals appear to be most effective when the support is welcomed by the mother.<ref name="Grigoriadis_2009"/>

Some Chinese women participate in a ritual that is known as "doing the month" (confinement) in which they spend the first 30 days after giving birth resting in bed, while the mother or mother-in-law takes care of domestic duties and childcare. In addition, the new mother is not allowed to bathe or shower, wash her hair, clean her teeth, leave the house, or be blown by the wind.<ref name="-2009032">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The relationship with the mother-in-law has been identified as a significant risk factor for postpartum depression in many Arab regions. Based on cultural beliefs that place importance on mothers, mothers-in-law have significant influences on daughters-in-law and grandchildren's lives in such societies as the husbands frequently have close relationships with their family of origin, including living together.<ref name="Haque_2015" />

Furthermore, cultural factors influence how Middle Eastern women are screened for PPD. The traditional Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, or EPDS, has come under criticism for emphasizing depression symptoms that may not be consistent with Muslim cultural standards. Thoughts of self-harm are strictly prohibited in Islam, yet it is a major symptom within the EPDS. Words like "depression screen" or "mental health" are considered disrespectful to some Arab cultures. Furthermore, women may under report symptoms to put the needs of the family before their own because these countries have collectivist cultures.<ref name="Haque_2015" />

Additionally, research showed that mothers of female babies had a considerably higher risk of PPD, ranging from 2-4 times higher than those of mothers of male babies, due to the value certain cultures in the Middle East place on female babies compared to male babies.<ref name="Ayoub_2020" />

Media

Certain cases of postpartum mental health concerns received attention in the media and brought about dialogue on ways to address and understand more about postpartum mental health. Andrea Yates, a former nurse, became pregnant for the first time in 1993.<ref name="Coodley_2002">Template:Cite journal</ref> After giving birth to five children in the coming years, she had severe depression and many depressive episodes. This led to her believing that her children needed to be saved and that by killing them, she could rescue their eternal souls. She drowned her children one by one over the course of an hour, by holding their heads underwater in their family bathtub. When called into trial, she felt that she had saved her children rather than harming them and that this action would contribute to defeating Satan.<ref name="Fisher_2003">Template:Cite journal</ref>

This was one of the first public and notable cases of postpartum psychosis,<ref name="Coodley_2002" /> which helped create a dialogue on women's mental health after childbirth. The court found that Yates was experiencing mental illness concerns, and the trial started the conversation of mental illness in cases of murder and whether or not it would lessen the sentence or not. It also started a dialogue on women going against "maternal instinct" after childbirth and what maternal instinct was truly defined by.<ref name="Fisher_2003" />

Yates' case brought wide media attention to the problem of filicide,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> or the murder of children by their parents. Throughout history, both men and women have perpetrated this act, but the study of maternal filicide is more extensive.

See also

• Postpartum blues
• Antenatal depression
• Gender disappointment
• Psychiatric disorders of childbirth
• Sex after pregnancy
• Breastfeeding and mental health

External links

• {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}

• Postnatal Depression, information from the mental health charity The Royal College of Psychiatrists
• NHS Choices Health A-Z: Postnatal depression
• Postpartum Depression and the Baby Blues - HelpGuide.org