Ring-opening polymerization

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General scheme ionic propagation. Propagating center can be radical, cationic or anionic.

In polymer chemistry, ring-opening polymerization (ROP) is a form of chain-growth polymerization in which the terminus of a polymer chain attacks cyclic monomers to form a longer polymer (see figure). The reactive center can be radical, anionic or cationic.

Ring-opening of cyclic monomers is often driven by the relief of bond-angle strain. Thus, as is the case for other types of polymerization, the enthalpy change in ring-opening is negative.<ref name=Young>Template:Cite book</ref> Many rings undergo ROP.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

MonomersEdit

Many cyclic monomers are amenable to ROP.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These include epoxides,<ref name=Sarazin>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Longo>Template:Cite journal</ref> cyclic trisiloxanes,Template:Cn some lactones<ref name=Sarazin/><ref name=Jerome>Template:Cite journal</ref> and lactides,<ref name=Jerome/> cyclic anhydrides,<ref name=Longo/> cyclic carbonates,<ref>Template:Cite journal </ref> and amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Many strained cycloalkenes, e.g norbornene, are suitable monomers via ring-opening metathesis polymerization. Even highly strained cycloalkane rings, such as cyclopropane<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and cyclobutane<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> derivatives, can undergo ROP.

HistoryEdit

Ring-opening polymerization has been used since the beginning of the 1900s to produce polymers. Synthesis of polypeptides which has the oldest history of ROP, dates back to the work in 1906 by Leuchs.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Subsequently, the ROP of anhydro sugars provided polysaccharides, including synthetic dextran, xanthan gum, welan gum, gellan gum, diutan gum, and pullulan. Mechanisms and thermodynamics of ring-opening polymerization were established in the 1950s.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The first high-molecular weight polymers (M_n up to 10⁵) with a repeating unit were prepared by ROP as early as in 1976.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

New research shows that ROP can be completed with cyclic esters with minimal to no use of solvents by using resonant acoustic mixing.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

An industrial application is the production of nylon-6 from caprolactam.

MechanismsEdit

Ring-opening polymerization can proceed via radical, anionic, or cationic polymerization as described below.<ref name=nuyken>Template:Cite journal</ref> Additionally, radical ROP is useful in producing polymers with functional groups incorporated in the backbone chain that cannot otherwise be synthesized via conventional chain-growth polymerization of vinyl monomers. For instance, radical ROP can produce polymers with ethers, esters, amides, and carbonates as functional groups along the main chain.<ref name=nuyken /><ref name=dubois>Template:Cite book</ref>

Anionic ring-opening polymerization (AROP)Edit

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The general mechanism for anionic ring-opening polymerization. Polarized functional group is represented by X-Y, where the atom X (usually a carbon atom) becomes electron deficient due to the highly electron-withdrawing nature of Y (usually an oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.). The nucleophile will attack atom X, thus releasing Y⁻. The newly formed nucleophile will then attack the atom X in another monomer molecule, and the sequence would repeat until the polymer is formed.<ref name=dubois />

Anionic ring-opening polymerizations (AROP) involve nucleophilic reagents as initiators. Monomers with a three-member ring structure - such as epoxides, aziridines, and episulfides - undergo anionic ROP.<ref name=dubois />

A typical example of anionic ROP is that of ε-caprolactone, initiated by an alkoxide.<ref name=dubois />

Cationic ring-opening polymerizationEdit

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Cationic initiators and intermediates characterize cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP). Examples of cyclic monomers that polymerize through this mechanism include lactones, lactams, amines, and ethers.<ref name="cowie cation">Template:Cite book</ref> CROP proceeds through an S_N1 or S_N2 propagation, chain-growth process.<ref name=nuyken /> The mechanism is affected by the stability of the resulting cationic species. For example, if the atom bearing the positive charge is stabilized by electron-donating groups, polymerization will proceed by the S_N1 mechanism.<ref name=dubois /> The cationic species is a heteroatom and the chain grows by the addition of cyclic monomers thereby opening the ring system.

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Synthesis of Spandex.<ref name="kirk">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

The monomers can be activated by Bronsted acids, carbenium ions, onium ions, and metal cations.<ref name=nuyken />

CROP can be a living polymerization and can be terminated by nucleophilic reagents such as phenoxy anions, phosphines, or polyanions.<ref name=nuyken /> When the amount of monomers becomes depleted, termination can occur intra or intermolecularly. The active end can "backbite" the chain, forming a macrocycle. Alkyl chain transfer is also possible, where the active end is quenched by transferring an alkyl chain to another polymer.

Ring-opening metathesis polymerizationEdit

Template:Main article Ring-opening metathesis polymerisation (ROMP) produces unsaturated polymers from cycloalkenes or bicycloalkenes. It requires organometallic catalysts.<ref name=nuyken />

The mechanism for ROMP follows similar pathways as olefin metathesis. The initiation process involves the coordination of the cycloalkene monomer to the metal alkylidene complex, followed by a [2+2] type cycloaddition to form the metallacyclobutane intermediate that cycloreverts to form a new alkylidene species.<ref name=sutthasupa>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=hartwig>Template:Cite book</ref>

File:Romp mechanism.png

General scheme of the mechanism for ROMP.

Commercially relevant unsaturated polymers synthesized by ROMP include polynorbornene, polycyclooctene, and polycyclopentadiene.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

ThermodynamicsEdit

The formal thermodynamic criterion of a given monomer polymerizability is related to a sign of the free enthalpy (Gibbs free energy) of polymerization: <math display=block>\Delta G_p(xy) = \Delta H_p(xy)-T\Delta S_p(xy)</math> where:

Template:Mvar and Template:Mvar indicate monomer and polymer states, respectively (Template:Mvar and/or Template:Mvar = l (liquid), g (gaseous), c (amorphous solid), c' (crystalline solid), s (solution));

Template:Math is the enthalpy of polymerization (SI unit: joule per kelvin);

Template:Math is the entropy of polymerization (SI unit: joule);

Template:Mvar is the absolute temperature (SI unit: kelvin).

The free enthalpy of polymerization (Template:Math) may be expressed as a sum of standard enthalpy of polymerization (Template:Math) and a term related to instantaneous monomer molecules and growing macromolecules concentrations: <math chem display=block>\Delta G_p = \Delta G^\circ_p + RT\ln\frac{[\ldots - (\ce{m})_{i+1} \ce{m}^\ast]}{[\ce{M}][\ldots-(\ce{m})_i \ce{m}^\ast]}</math> where:

Template:Mvar is the gas constant;

Template:Math is the monomer;

Template:Math is the monomer in an initial state;

Template:Math is the active monomer.

Following Flory–Huggins solution theory that the reactivity of an active center, located at a macromolecule of a sufficiently long macromolecular chain, does not depend on its degree of polymerization (Template:Math), and taking in to account that Template:Math (where Template:Math and Template:Math indicate a standard polymerization enthalpy and entropy, respectively), we obtain:

<math>\Delta G_p = \Delta H^\circ_p - T(\Delta S^\circ_p + R\ln[M])</math>

At equilibrium (Template:Math), when polymerization is complete the monomer concentration (Template:Math) assumes a value determined by standard polymerization parameters (Template:Math and Template:Math) and polymerization temperature: <math chem display=block>\begin{align}

 {}[\ce{M}]_{\rm eq} &= \exp\left(\frac{\Delta H^\circ_p}{RT} - \frac{\Delta S^\circ_p}{R}\right) \\[4pt]
 \ln\frac{DP_n}{DP_n - 1}[\ce{M}]_{\rm eq} &= \frac{\Delta H^\circ_p}{RT} - \frac{\Delta S^\circ_p}{R} \\[4pt]
 [\ce{M}]_{\rm eq} &= \frac{DP_n - 1}{DP_n} \exp\left(\frac{\Delta H^\circ_p}{RT} - \frac{\Delta S^\circ_p}{R}\right)

\end{align}</math> Polymerization is possible only when Template:Math. Eventually, at or above the so-called ceiling temperature (Template:Mvar), at which Template:Math, formation of the high polymer does not occur. <math chem display=block>\begin{align}

 T_c &= \frac{\Delta H^\circ_p}{\Delta S^\circ_p + R\ln[\ce{M}]_0} ; \quad (\Delta H^\circ_p<0,\ \Delta S^\circ_p<0) \\[4pt]
 T_f &= \frac{\Delta H^\circ_p}{\Delta S^\circ_p + R\ln[\ce{M}]_0} ; \quad (\Delta H^\circ_p>0,\ \Delta S^\circ_p>0)

\end{align}</math> For example, tetrahydrofuran (THF) cannot be polymerized above Template:Mvar = 84 °C, nor cyclo-octasulfur (S₈) below Template:Mvar = 159 °C.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, for many monomers, Template:Mvar and Template:Mvar, for polymerization in the bulk, are well above or below the operable polymerization temperatures, respectively. The polymerization of a majority of monomers is accompanied by an entropy decrease, due mostly to the loss in the translational degrees of freedom. In this situation, polymerization is thermodynamically allowed only when the enthalpic contribution into Template:Math prevails (thus, when Template:Math and Template:Math, the inequality Template:Math is required). Therefore, the higher the ring strain, the lower the resulting monomer concentration at equilibrium.

Additional readingEdit

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