Template:Short description Template:About Template:Use American English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox mineral
Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical formula of SiO2. Quartz is, therefore, classified structurally as a framework silicate mineral and compositionally as an oxide mineral. Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in Earth's continental crust, behind feldspar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Quartz exists in two forms, the normal α-quartz and the high-temperature β-quartz, both of which are chiral. The transformation from α-quartz to β-quartz takes place abruptly at Template:Convert. Since the transformation is accompanied by a significant change in volume, it can easily induce microfracturing of ceramics or rocks passing through this temperature threshold.
There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are classified as gemstones. Since antiquity, varieties of quartz have been the most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings, especially in Europe and Asia.
Quartz is the mineral defining the value of 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness, a qualitative scratch method for determining the hardness of a material to abrasion.
EtymologyEdit
The word "quartz" is derived from the German word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}},<ref name="Merriam">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> which had the same form in the first half of the 14th century in Middle High German and in East Central German<ref>Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache Template:Webarchive (in German)</ref> and which came from the Polish dialect term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which corresponds to the Czech term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("hard").<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Some sources, however, attribute the word's origin to the Saxon word Querkluftertz, meaning cross-vein ore.<ref>Template:Usurped, Queensland University of Technology. Mineralatlas.com. Retrieved 2013-03-07.</ref><ref name="Tomkeieff1942">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The Ancient Greeks referred to quartz as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) derived from the Ancient Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) meaning "icy cold", because some philosophers (including Theophrastus) understood the mineral to be a form of supercooled ice.<ref name="Tomkieff">Template:Cite journal</ref> Today, the term rock crystal is sometimes used as an alternative name for transparent coarsely crystalline quartz.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Early studiesEdit
Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder believed quartz to be water ice, permanently frozen after great lengths of time.<ref>Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book 37, Chapter 9. Available on-line at: Perseus.Tufts.edu Template:Webarchive.</ref> He supported this idea by saying that quartz is found near glaciers in the Alps, but not on volcanic mountains, and that large quartz crystals were fashioned into spheres to cool the hands. This idea persisted until at least the 17th century. He also knew of the ability of quartz to split light into a spectrum.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In the 17th century, Nicolas Steno's study of quartz paved the way for modern crystallography. He discovered that regardless of a quartz crystal's size or shape, its long prism faces always joined at a perfect 60° angle, thus discovering the law of constancy of interfacial angles.<ref>Nicolaus Steno (Latinized name of Niels Steensen) with John Garrett Winter, trans., The Prodromus of Nicolaus Steno's Dissertation Concerning a Solid Body Enclosed by Process of Nature Within a Solid (New York, New York: Macmillan Co., 1916). On page 272 Template:Webarchive, Steno states his law of constancy of interfacial angles: "Figures 5 and 6 belong to the class of those which I could present in countless numbers to prove that in the plane of the axis both the number and the length of the sides are changed in various ways without changing the angles; … "</ref>
Crystal habit and structureEdit
Template:Multiple image Quartz belongs to the trigonal crystal system at room temperature, and to the hexagonal crystal system above Template:Convert. The former is called α-quartz; the latter is β-quartz. The ideal crystal shape is a six-sided prism terminating with six-sided pyramid-like rhombohedrons at each end. In nature, quartz crystals are often twinned (with twin right-handed and left-handed quartz crystals), distorted, or so intergrown with adjacent crystals of quartz or other minerals as to only show part of this shape, or to lack obvious crystal faces altogether and appear massive.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Well-formed crystals typically form as a druse (a layer of crystals lining a void), of which quartz geodes are particularly fine examples.<ref name=sinkankas>Template:Cite book</ref> The crystals are attached at one end to the enclosing rock, and only one termination pyramid is present. However, doubly terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely without attachment, for instance, within gypsum.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
α-quartz crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system, space group P3121 or P3221 (space group 152 or 154 resp.) depending on the chirality. Above Template:Convert, α-quartz in P3121 becomes the more symmetric hexagonal P6422 (space group 181), and α-quartz in P3221 goes to space group P6222 (no. 180).<ref>Crystal Data, Determinative Tables, ACA Monograph No. 5, American Crystallographic Association, 1963</ref>
These space groups are truly chiral (they each belong to the 11 enantiomorphous pairs). Both α-quartz and β-quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of achiral building blocks (SiO4 tetrahedra in the present case). The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to one another, without a change in the way they are linked.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn However, there is a significant change in volume during this transition,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and this can result in significant microfracturing in ceramics during firing,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> in ornamental stone after a fire<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and in rocks of the Earth's crust exposed to high temperatures,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> thereby damaging materials containing quartz and degrading their physical and mechanical properties.
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Common, prismatic quartz
- Améthyste, quartz 300-3-7640.JPG
Sceptered quartz
- Quartz sceptres fumés sur quartz (Madagascar) 1.jpg
Sceptered quartz (as aggregates: "Elestial quartz")
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Bipyramidal quartz
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Tessin or tapered quartz
- Hyaline quartz-MCG-NM-IMG 7481-black.jpg
Twinned quartz (known as Japan law)
- Quartz sur quartz 7(Brésil).jpg
Dauphine quartz (single dominant face)
- Herkimer.jpg
- Quartz crystals Macro 1.JPG
Druse quartz
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Granular quartz
- Rose quartz SiO2 locality - Dolní Bory, Czech Republic (50660502442).jpg
Massive quartz
Varieties (according to microstructure)Edit
Although many of the varietal names historically arose from the color of the mineral, current scientific naming schemes refer primarily to the microstructure of the mineral. Color is a secondary identifier for the cryptocrystalline minerals, although it is a primary identifier for the macrocrystalline varieties.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The most important microstructure difference between types of quartz is that of macrocrystalline quartz (individual crystals visible to the unaided eye) and the microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline varieties (aggregates of crystals visible only under high magnification). The cryptocrystalline varieties are either translucent or mostly opaque, while the macrocrystalline varieties tend to be more transparent. Chalcedony is a cryptocrystalline form of silica consisting of fine intergrowths of both quartz, and its monoclinic polymorph moganite.<ref name="heany_1994">Template:Cite journal</ref> Agate is a variety of chalcedony that is fibrous and distinctly banded with either concentric or horizontal bands.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> While most agates are translucent, onyx is a variety of agate that is more opaque, featuring monochromatic bands that are typically black and white.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Carnelian or sard is a red-orange, translucent variety of chalcedony. Jasper is an opaque chert or impure chalcedony.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
| Type | Color and description | Transparency | Microstructure |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rock crystal | Colorless | Transparent | Macrocrystalline |
| Amethyst | Purple to violet colored quartz | Transparent | Macrocrystalline |
| Citrine | Yellow quartz ranging to reddish-orange or brown (Madeira citrine), and occasionally greenish yellow | Transparent | Macrocrystalline |
| Rose quartz | Pink, may display diasterism | Transparent | Macrocrystalline |
| Chalcedony | Fibrous, occurs in many varieties. The term is often used for white, cloudy, or lightly colored material intergrown with moganite. Otherwise more specific names are used. |
Translucent to opaque | Cryptocrystalline |
| Carnelian | Reddish orange chalcedony | Translucent | Cryptocrystalline |
| Aventurine | Quartz with tiny aligned inclusions (usually mica) that shimmer with aventurescence | Translucent to opaque | Macrocrystalline |
| Agate | Multi-colored, concentric or horizontal banded chalcedony | Semi-translucent to translucent | Cryptocrystalline |
| Onyx | Typically black-and-white-banded or monochromatic agate | Semi-translucent to opaque | Cryptocrystalline |
| Jasper | Impure chalcedony or chert, typically red to brown but the name is often used for other colors | Opaque | Cryptocrystalline or Microcrystalline |
| Milky quartz | White, may display diasterism | Translucent to opaque | Macrocrystalline |
| Smoky quartz | Light to dark gray, sometimes with a brownish hue | Translucent to opaque | Macrocrystalline |
| Tiger's eye | Fibrous gold, red-brown or bluish colored chalcedony, exhibiting chatoyancy. | Opaque | Cryptocrystalline |
| Prasiolite | Green | Transparent | Macrocrystalline |
| Rutilated quartz | Contains acicular (needle-like) inclusions of rutile | Transparent to translucent | Macrocrystalline |
| Dumortierite quartz | Contains large amounts of blue dumortierite crystals | Translucent | Macrocrystalline |
Varieties (according to color)Edit
Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal or clear quartz, is colorless and transparent or translucent and has often been used for hardstone carvings, such as the Lothair Crystal. Common colored varieties include citrine, rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> These color differentiations arise from the presence of impurities which change the molecular orbitals, causing some electronic transitions to take place in the visible spectrum causing colors.
AmethystEdit
Amethyst is a form of quartz that ranges from a bright vivid violet to a dark or dull lavender shade. The world's largest deposits of amethysts can be found in Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, Russia, France, Namibia, and Morocco. Amethyst derives its color from traces of iron in its structure.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
AmetrineEdit
Ametrine, as its name suggests, is commonly believed to be a combination of citrine and amethyst in the same crystal; however, this may not be technically correct. Like amethyst, the yellow quartz component of ametrine is colored by iron oxide inclusions. Some, but not all, sources define citrine solely as quartz with its color originating from aluminum-based color centers.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Other sources do not make this distinction.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In the former case, the yellow quartz in ametrine is not considered true citrine. Regardless, most ametrine on the market is in fact partially heat- or radiation-treated amethyst.<ref name=":2" />
Blue quartzEdit
Blue quartz contains inclusions of fibrous magnesio-riebeckite or crocidolite.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Dumortierite quartzEdit
Inclusions of the mineral dumortierite within quartz pieces often result in silky-appearing splotches with a blue hue. Shades of purple or gray sometimes also are present. "Dumortierite quartz" (sometimes called "blue quartz") will sometimes feature contrasting light and dark color zones across the material.<ref name=Cally/><ref name=gemstone>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> "Blue quartz" is a minor gemstone.<ref name=Cally>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
CitrineEdit
Citrine is a variety of quartz whose color ranges from yellow to yellow-orange or yellow-green. The cause of its color is not well agreed upon. Evidence suggests the color of citrine is linked to the presence of aluminum-based color centers in its crystal structure, similar to those of smoky quartz. Both smoky quartz and citrine are dichroic in polarized light and will fade when heated sufficiently or exposed to UV light. They may occur together in the same crystal as “smoky citrine.” Smoky quartz can also be converted to citrine by careful heat treatment. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the color of citrine may be due to trace amounts of iron, but synthetic crystals grown in iron-rich solutions have failed to replicate the color or dichroism of natural citrine. The UV-sensitivity of natural citrine further indicates that its color is not caused solely by trace elements.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Natural citrine is rare; most commercial citrine is heat-treated amethyst or smoky quartz. Amethyst loses its natural violet color when heated to above 200-300°C and turns a color that resembles natural citrine, but is often more brownish.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Unlike natural citrine, the color of heat-treated amethyst comes from trace amounts of the iron oxide minerals hematite and goethite. Clear quartz with natural iron inclusions or limonite staining may also resemble citrine, but it is not true citrine.<ref name=":0" /> Like amethyst, heat-treated amethyst often exhibits color zoning, or uneven color distribution throughout the crystal. In geodes and clusters, the color is usually deepest near the tips.<ref name=":1" /> This does not occur in natural citrine.
It is nearly impossible to differentiate between cut citrine and yellow topaz visually, but they differ in hardness. Brazil is the leading producer of citrine, with much of its production coming from the state of Rio Grande do Sul. The name is derived from the Latin word citrina which means "yellow" and is also the origin of the word "citron".<ref>Citrine Template:Webarchive. Mindat.org (2013-03-01). Retrieved 2013-03-07.</ref> Citrine has been referred to as the "merchant's stone" or "money stone", due to a superstition that it would bring prosperity.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
Citrine was first appreciated as a golden-yellow gemstone in Greece between 300 and 150 BC, during the Hellenistic Age. Yellow quartz was used prior to that to decorate jewelry and tools but it was not highly sought after.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Milky quartzEdit
Milk quartz or milky quartz is the most common variety of crystalline quartz. The white color is caused by minute fluid inclusions of gas, liquid, or both, trapped during crystal formation,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> making it of little value for optical and quality gemstone applications.<ref>Milky quartz at Mineral Galleries Template:Webarchive. Galleries.com. Retrieved 2013-03-07.</ref>
Rose quartzEdit
Template:Redirect Rose quartz is a type of quartz that exhibits a pale pink to rose red hue. The color is usually considered as due to trace amounts of titanium, iron, or manganese in the material. Some rose quartz contains microscopic rutile needles that produce asterism in transmitted light. Recent X-ray diffraction studies suggest that the color is due to thin microscopic fibers of possibly dumortierite within the quartz.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Additionally, there is a rare type of pink quartz (also frequently called crystalline rose quartz) with color that is thought to be caused by trace amounts of phosphate or aluminium. The color in crystals is apparently photosensitive and subject to fading. The first crystals were found in a pegmatite found near Rumford, Maine, US, and in Minas Gerais, Brazil.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The crystals found are more transparent and euhedral, due to the impurities of phosphate and aluminium that formed crystalline rose quartz, unlike the iron and microscopic dumortierite fibers that formed rose quartz.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Smoky quartzEdit
Smoky quartz is a gray, translucent version of quartz. It ranges in clarity from almost complete transparency to a brownish-gray crystal that is almost opaque. Some can also be black. The translucency results from natural irradiation acting on minute traces of aluminum in the crystal structure.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
PraseEdit
Prase is a leek-green variety of quartz that gets its color from inclusions of the amphibole actinolite.<ref name="Klemme_etal_2018">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, the term has also variously been used for a type of quartzite, a microcrystalline variety of quartz or jasper, or any leek-green quartz.<ref name=":3" />
PrasioliteEdit
Prasiolite, also known as vermarine, is a variety of quartz that is green in color.<ref name=QtzPage>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The green is caused by iron ions.<ref name="Klemme_etal_2018"/> It is a rare mineral in nature and is typically found with amethyst; most "prasiolite" is not natural – it has been artificially produced by heating of amethyst. Template:Citation needed span, almost all natural prasiolite has come from a small Brazilian mine, but it is also seen in Lower Silesia in Poland. Naturally occurring prasiolite is also found in the Thunder Bay area of Canada.<ref name=QtzPage />
PiezoelectricityEdit
Quartz crystals have piezoelectric properties; they develop an electric potential upon the application of mechanical stress.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Quartz's piezoelectric properties were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880.<ref>Template:Cite journal. Reprinted in: Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
OccurrenceEdit
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Quartz is a defining constituent of granite and other felsic igneous rocks. It is very common in sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and shale. It is a common constituent of schist, gneiss, quartzite and other metamorphic rocks.Template:Sfn Quartz has the lowest potential for weathering in the Goldich dissolution series and consequently it is very common as a residual mineral in stream sediments and residual soils. Generally a high presence of quartz suggests a "mature" rock, since it indicates the rock has been heavily reworked and quartz was the primary mineral that endured heavy weathering.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
While the majority of quartz crystallizes from molten magma, quartz also chemically precipitates from hot hydrothermal veins as gangue, sometimes with ore minerals like gold, silver and copper. Large crystals of quartz are found in magmatic pegmatites.Template:Sfn Well-formed crystals may reach several meters in length and weigh hundreds of kilograms.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The largest documented single crystal of quartz was found near Itapore, Goiaz, Brazil; it measured approximately Template:Convert and weighed over Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
MiningEdit
Quartz is extracted from open pit mines. Miners occasionally use explosives to expose deep pockets of quartz. More frequently, bulldozers and backhoes are used to remove soil and clay and expose quartz veins, which are then worked using hand tools. Care must be taken to avoid sudden temperature changes that may damage the crystals.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Related silica mineralsEdit
Tridymite and cristobalite are high-temperature polymorphs of SiO2 that occur in high-silica volcanic rocks. Coesite is a denser polymorph of SiO2 found in some meteorite impact sites and in metamorphic rocks formed at pressures greater than those typical of the Earth's crust. Stishovite is a yet denser and higher-pressure polymorph of SiO2 found in some meteorite impact sites.Template:Sfn Moganite is a monoclinic polymorph. Lechatelierite is an amorphous silica glass SiO2 which is formed by lightning strikes in quartz sand.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
SafetyEdit
As quartz is a form of silica, it is a possible cause for concern in various workplaces. Cutting, grinding, chipping, sanding, drilling, and polishing natural and manufactured stone products can release hazardous levels of very small, crystalline silica dust particles into the air that workers breathe.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Crystalline silica of respirable size is a recognized human carcinogen and may lead to other diseases of the lungs such as silicosis and pulmonary fibrosis.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Synthetic and artificial treatmentsEdit
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Not all varieties of quartz are naturally occurring. Some clear quartz crystals can be treated using heat or gamma-irradiation to induce color where it would not otherwise have occurred naturally. Susceptibility to such treatments depends on the location from which the quartz was mined.<ref>Liccini, Mark, Treating Quartz to Create Color Template:Webarchive, International Gem Society website. Retrieved 22 December 2014</ref>
Prasiolite, an olive colored material, is produced by heat treatment;<ref name="henn-etal-2012">Template:Cite journal</ref> natural prasiolite has also been observed in Lower Silesia in Poland.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Although citrine occurs naturally, the majority is the result of heat-treating amethyst or smoky quartz.<ref name="henn-etal-2012"/> Carnelian has been heat-treated to deepen its color since prehistoric times.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Because natural quartz is often twinned, synthetic quartz is produced for use in industry. Large, flawless, single crystals are synthesized in an autoclave via the hydrothermal process.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn<ref name="buisson-arnaud-1994">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Like other crystals, quartz may be coated with metal vapors to give it an attractive sheen.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
UsesEdit
Quartz is the most common material identified as the mystical substance maban in Australian Aboriginal mythology. It is found regularly in passage tomb cemeteries in Europe in a burial context, such as Newgrange or Carrowmore in Ireland. Quartz was also used in Prehistoric Ireland, as well as many other countries, for stone tools; both vein quartz and rock crystal were knapped as part of the lithic technology of the prehistoric peoples.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
While jade has been since earliest times the most prized semi-precious stone for carving in East Asia and Pre-Columbian America, in Europe and the Middle East the different varieties of quartz were the most commonly used for the various types of jewelry and hardstone carving, including engraved gems and cameo gems, rock crystal vases, and extravagant vessels. The tradition continued to produce objects that were very highly valued until the mid-19th century, when it largely fell from fashion except in jewelry. Cameo technique exploits the bands of color in onyx and other varieties.
Efforts to synthesize quartz began in the mid-nineteenth century as scientists attempted to create minerals under laboratory conditions that mimicked the conditions in which the minerals formed in nature: German geologist Karl Emil von Schafhäutl (1803–1890) was the first person to synthesize quartz when in 1845 he created microscopic quartz crystals in a pressure cooker.<ref>Template:Cite journal From page 578: 5) Bildeten sich aus Wasser, in welchen ich im Papinianischen Topfe frisch gefällte Kieselsäure aufgelöst hatte, beym Verdampfen schon nach 8 Tagen Krystalle, die zwar mikroscopisch, aber sehr wohl erkenntlich aus sechseitigen Prismen mit derselben gewöhnlichen Pyramide bestanden. ( 5) There formed from water in which I had dissolved freshly precipitated silicic acid in a Papin pot [i.e., pressure cooker], after just 8 days of evaporating, crystals, which albeit were microscopic but consisted of very easily recognizable six-sided prisms with their usual pyramids.)</ref> However, the quality and size of the crystals that were produced by these early efforts were poor.<ref>Byrappa, K. and Yoshimura, Masahiro (2001) Handbook of Hydrothermal Technology. Norwich, New York: Noyes Publications. Template:ISBN. Chapter 2: History of Hydrothermal Technology.</ref>
Elemental impurity incorporation strongly influences the ability to process and utilize quartz. Naturally occurring quartz crystals of extremely high purity, necessary for the crucibles and other equipment used for growing silicon wafers in the semiconductor industry, are expensive and rare. These high-purity quartz are defined as containing less than 50 ppm of impurity elements.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A major mining location for high purity quartz is the Spruce Pine Mining District in Spruce Pine, North Carolina, United States.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Quartz may also be found in Caldoveiro Peak, in Asturias, Spain.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
By the 1930s, the electronics industry had become dependent on quartz crystals. The only source of suitable crystals was Brazil; however, World War II disrupted the supplies from Brazil, so nations attempted to synthesize quartz on a commercial scale. German mineralogist Richard Nacken (1884–1971) achieved some success during the 1930s and 1940s.<ref>Nacken, R. (1950) "Hydrothermal Synthese als Grundlage für Züchtung von Quarz-Kristallen" (Hydrothermal synthesis as a basis for the production of quartz crystals), Chemiker Zeitung, 74 : 745–749.</ref> After the war, many laboratories attempted to grow large quartz crystals. In the United States, the U.S. Army Signal Corps contracted with Bell Laboratories and with the Brush Development Company of Cleveland, Ohio to synthesize crystals following Nacken's lead.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> (Prior to World War II, Brush Development produced piezoelectric crystals for record players.) By 1948, Brush Development had grown crystals that were 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in diameter, the largest at that time.<ref>"Record crystal", Popular Science, 154 (2) : 148 (February 1949).</ref><ref>Brush Development's team of scientists included: Danforth R. Hale, Andrew R. Sobek, and Charles Baldwin Sawyer (1895–1964). The company's U.S. patents included:
- Sobek, Andrew R. "Apparatus for growing single crystals of quartz", Template:US Patent; filed: 11 April 1950; issued: 6 April 1954.
- Sobek, Andrew R. and Hale, Danforth R. "Method and apparatus for growing single crystals of quartz", Template:US Patent; filed: 11 April 1950; issued: 13 April 1954.
- Sawyer, Charles B. "Production of artificial crystals", Template:US Patent; filed: 27 March 1959; issued: 19 December 1961. (This patent was assigned to Sawyer Research Products of Eastlake, Ohio.)</ref> By the 1950s, hydrothermal synthesis techniques were producing synthetic quartz crystals on an industrial scale, and today virtually all the quartz crystal used in the modern electronics industry is synthetic.<ref name="buisson-arnaud-1994"/>
An early use of the piezoelectricity of quartz crystals was in phonograph pickups. One of the most common piezoelectric uses of quartz today is as a crystal oscillator. The quartz oscillator or resonator was first developed by Walter Guyton Cady in 1921.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> George Washington Pierce designed and patented quartz crystal oscillators in 1923.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Pierce, George W. "Electrical system", Template:US Patent, filed: 25 February 1924; issued: 18 October 1938.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The quartz clock is a familiar device using the mineral. Warren Marrison created the first quartz oscillator clock based on the work of Cady and Pierce in 1927.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The resonant frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator is changed by mechanically loading it, and this principle is used for very accurate measurements of very small mass changes in the quartz crystal microbalance and in thin-film thickness monitors.<ref name="Sauerbrey_1959">Template:Cite journal (NB. This was partially presented at Physikertagung in Heidelberg in October 1957.)</ref>
- Milan Jug with cut festoon decoration.jpg
Rock crystal jug with cut festoon decoration by Milan workshop from the second half of the 16th century, National Museum in Warsaw. The city of Milan, apart from Prague and Florence, was the main Renaissance centre for crystal cutting.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Prototype synthetic quartz autoclave 1959.jpg
Synthetic quartz crystals produced in the autoclave shown in Western Electric's pilot hydrothermal quartz plant in 1959
- Ewer birds Louvre MR333.jpg
Fatimid ewer in carved rock crystal (clear quartz) with gold lid, Template:Circa
Almost all the industrial demand for quartz crystal (used primarily in electronics) is met with synthetic quartz produced by the hydrothermal process. However, synthetic crystals are less prized for use as gemstones.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The popularity of crystal healing has increased the demand for natural quartz crystals, which are now often mined in developing countries using primitive mining methods, sometimes involving child labor.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Sister project
- Quartz varieties, properties, crystal morphology. Photos and illustrations
- Gilbert Hart, "Nomenclature of Silica", American Mineralogist, Volume 12, pp. 383–395. 1927
- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}
- Terminology used to describe the characteristics of quartz crystals when used as oscillators
- Quartz use as prehistoric stone tool raw material
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