Template:Short description Template:About Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox saint Template:Christian mysticism Template:Eucharistic Adoration
Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone (Template:Circa 1181 – 3 October 1226), known as Francis of Assisi,Template:EfnTemplate:Efn was an ItalianTemplate:Efn mystic, poet and Catholic friar who founded the religious order of the Franciscans. Inspired to lead a Christian life of poverty, he became a beggar<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and itinerant preacher.
One of the most venerated figures in Christianity,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Francis was canonized by Pope Gregory IX on 16 July 1228. He is commonly portrayed wearing a brown habit with a rope tied around his waist, featuring three knots symbolizing the evangelical counsels of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
In 1219, he went to Egypt in an attempt to convert the sultan al-Kamil and put an end to the conflict of the Fifth Crusade.Template:Sfn In 1223, he arranged for the first live nativity scene as part of the annual Christmas celebration in Greccio.Template:Efn<ref>Template:CathEncy</ref><ref name="cefa">Template:CathEncy</ref> According to Christian tradition, in 1224 Francis received the stigmata during the apparition of a Seraphic angel in a religious ecstasy.<ref name="ODCC Francis" />
Francis is associated with patronage of animals and the environment. It became customary for churches to hold ceremonies blessing animals on his feast day of the fourth of October, which became World Animal Day. He was noted for his devotion to the Eucharist.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Along with Catherine of Siena, he was designated patron saint of Italy. He is also the namesake of the city of San Francisco.
September 17 is the feast of Francis' stigmatization.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
NamesEdit
Francis (Template:Langx; Template:Langx) was baptized Giovanni by his mother. His surname, di Pietro di Bernardone, comes from his father, Pietro di Bernardone. The latter was in France on business when Francis was born in Assisi, a small town in Italy. Upon his return, Pietro took to calling his son Francesco ("Free man" or "Frenchman"), possibly in honour of his commercial success and enthusiasm for all things French.<ref name="Chesterton">Template:Cite book</ref>
BiographyEdit
Early lifeEdit
Francis of Assisi was born Template:Circa,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="dukemag2">Template:Cite journal</ref> one of the children of an Italian father, Pietro di Bernardone dei Moriconi, a prosperous silk merchant, and a French mother, Pica di Bourlemont, about whom little is known except that she was a noblewoman originally from Provence.<ref name="Lives">Template:Cite book</ref>
Indulged by his parents, Francis lived the high-spirited life typical of a wealthy young man.<ref name="ODCC Francis">Template:Cite book</ref> As a youth, Francis became a devotee of troubadours and was fascinated with all things Transalpine.<ref name="Chesterton" /> He was handsome, witty, gallant and delighted in fine clothes.<ref name="cefa" /> He spent money lavishly.<ref name="cefa" /> Although many hagiographers remark about his bright clothing, rich friends and love of pleasures,<ref name="Lives" /> his displays of disillusionment toward the world that surrounded him came fairly early in his life, as is shown in the "story of the beggar". In this account, he was selling cloth and velvet in the marketplace on behalf of his father when a beggar came to him and asked for alms. At the conclusion of his business deal, Francis abandoned his wares and ran after the beggar. When he found him, Francis gave the man everything he had in his purse. His friends mocked him for his charity; his father scolded him in rage.<ref name="chest41">Chesterton (1924), pp. 40–41</ref>
Around 1202, he joined a military expedition against Perugia and was taken as a prisoner at Collestrada. He spent a year as a captive,<ref name="Bonaventure">Template:Cite book</ref> during which an illness caused him to re-evaluate his life. However, upon his return to Assisi in 1203, Francis returned to his carefree life. In 1205, Francis left for Apulia to enlist in the army of Walter III, Count of Brienne. A strange vision made him return to Assisi and lose interest in worldly life.<ref name="ODCC Francis" /> According to hagiographic accounts, thereafter he began to avoid the sports and feasts of his former companions. A friend asked him whether he was thinking of marrying, to which he answered: "Yes, a fairer bride than any of you have ever seen", meaning his "Lady Poverty".<ref name="cefa" />
On a pilgrimage to Rome, he joined the poor in begging at St. Peter's Basilica.<ref name="ODCC Francis" /> He spent some time in lonely places, asking God for divine illumination. He said he had a mystical vision of Jesus Christ in the forsaken country chapel of San Damiano, just outside Assisi, in which the Icon of Christ Crucified said to him, "Francis, Francis, go and repair My church which, as you can see, is falling into ruins." He took this to mean the ruined church in which he was presently praying, so he sold some cloth taken from his father's store to assist the priest there.<ref name="chest54">Chesterton (1924), pp. 54–56</ref><ref>According to the Franciscan Order, Francis of Assisi personally experienced the Trinitarian indwelling for more times during his earthly life. See Template:Cite book (EAN 9788870947397). Also available in Spanish: A. Spirito (franciscano conventual), Guglielmo (1 de enero de 1994). El cielo en la tierra. La inhabitación trinitaria en s. Francisco a la luz de su tiempo y de sus escritos. Varia (2). Miscellanea Francescana. p. 312.</ref> When the priest refused to accept the ill-gotten gains, an indignant Francis threw the coins on the floor.<ref name="cefa" />
In order to avoid his father's wrath, Francis hid in a cave near San Damiano for about a month. When he returned to town, hungry and dirty, he was dragged home by his father, beaten, bound and locked in a small storeroom. Freed by his mother during Bernardone's absence, Francis returned at once to San Damiano, where he found shelter with the officiating priest, but he was soon cited before the city consuls by his father. The latter, not content with having recovered the scattered gold from San Damiano, sought also to force his son to forego his inheritance by way of restitution. In the midst of legal proceedings before the Bishop of Assisi, Francis renounced his father and his patrimony.<ref name="cefa" /> Some accounts report that he stripped himself naked in token of this renunciation and the bishop covered him with his own cloak.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
For the next couple of months, Francis wandered as a beggar in the hills behind Assisi. He spent some time at a neighbouring monastery working as a scullion. He then went to Gubbio, where a friend gave him, as an alms, the cloak, girdle and staff of a pilgrim. Returning to Assisi, he traversed the city, begging stones for the restoration of St. Damiano. These he carried to the old chapel, set in place himself, and rebuilt it over time. Over the course of two years, he embraced the life of a penitent, during which he restored several ruined chapels in the countryside around Assisi, among them San Pietro in Spina (in the area of San Petrignano in the valley about a kilometre from modern Rivotorto, on private property and once again in ruin); and the Porziuncola, the little chapel of St. Mary of the Angels in the plain just below the town.<ref name="cefa" /> This later became his favorite abode.<ref name="chest54" /> By degrees he took to nursing lepers, in the leper colonies near Assisi.
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The Piccolino Chapel, Francis’ legendary birthplace
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Saint Francis renounces his earthly father.
Founding of the Franciscan OrderEdit
Friars MinorEdit
One morning in February 1208, Francis was taking part in a Mass in the chapel of St. Mary of the Angels, near which he had by then built himself a hut. The Gospel of the day was the "Commissioning of the Twelve" from the Book of Matthew. The disciples were to go and proclaim that the Kingdom of God is at hand. Francis was inspired to devote himself to a life of poverty. Having obtained a coarse woollen tunic, the dress then worn by the poorest Umbrian peasants, he tied it around himself with a knotted rope and went about exhorting the people of the countryside to penance, brotherly love and peace. Francis's preaching to ordinary people was unusual as he had no license to do so.Template:Sfn
His example attracted others. Within a year Francis had eleven followers. The brothers lived a simple life in the deserted leper colony of Rivo Torto near Assisi. They spent much of their time wandering through the mountainous districts of Umbria, and through their earnestness toward people they encountered, often deeply impressed them.<ref name="cefa" />
In 1209 he composed a simple rule for his followers ("friars"), the Regula primitiva or "Primitive Rule", which came from verses in the Bible. The rule was "to follow the teachings of our Lord Jesus Christ and to walk in his footsteps." He then led eleven followers to Rome to seek permission from Pope Innocent III to found a new religious order.<ref name="chest107">Chesterton (1924), pp. 107–108</ref> Upon entry to Rome, the brothers encountered Bishop Guido of Assisi, who had in his company Giovanni di San Paolo, the Cardinal Bishop of Sabina. The Cardinal, who was the confessor of Pope Innocent III, was immediately sympathetic to Francis and agreed to represent Francis to the pope. After several days, the pope agreed to admit the group informally, adding that when God increased the group in grace and number, they could return for an official audience. The group was tonsured.<ref name="Francis of Assisi and His World">Galli (2002), pp. 74–80</ref> This was important in part because it recognized Church authority and prevented his following from accusations of heresy, as had happened to the Waldensians decades earlier. Though a number of the pope's counsellors considered the mode of life proposed by Francis to be unsafe and impractical, following a dream in which he saw Francis holding up the Lateran Basilica, he decided to endorse Francis's order. Per tradition, this occurred on 16 April 1210 and constituted the official founding of the Franciscan Order.Template:Sfn The group, then the "Lesser Brothers" (Order of Friars Minor also known as the Franciscan Order or the Seraphic Order), were centred in the Porziuncola and preached first in Umbria, before expanding throughout Italy.Template:Sfn Francis was later ordained a deacon, but not a priest.<ref name="cefa" />
Poor Clares and Third OrderEdit
From then on, the new order grew quickly. Hearing Francis preaching in the church of San Rufino in Assisi in 1211, the young noblewoman Clare of Assisi sought to live like them. Her cousin Rufino also sought to join. On the night of Palm Sunday, 28 March 1212, Clare clandestinely left her family's palace. Francis received her at the Porziuncola and thereby established the Order of Poor Clares.<ref name="chest110">Chesterton (1924), pp. 110–111</ref> He gave Clare a religious habit, a garment similar to his own, before lodging her, her younger sister Caterina and other young women in a nearby monastery of Benedictine nuns until he could provide a suitable monastery. Later he transferred them to San Damiano,Template:Sfn to a few small huts or cells. This became the first monastery of the Second Franciscan Order, now known as Poor Clares.<ref name="cefa" />
For those who could not leave their affairs, Francis later formed the Third Order of Brothers and Sisters of Penance, a fraternity composed of either laity or clergy whose members neither withdrew from the world nor took religious vows. Instead, they observed the principles of Franciscan life in their daily lives.Template:Sfn Before long, the Third Order – now titled the Secular Franciscan Order – grew beyond Italy.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
TravelsEdit
Determined to bring the Gospel to all peoples and let God convert them, Francis sought on several occasions to take his message out of Italy. In approximately 1211, a captain of the Medrano family held the lordship of the castle and town of Agoncillo, situated near the city of Logroño, in the region of La Rioja, Spain. Medrano's son was suffering from a mysterious and untreatable ailment. In 1211, Saint Francis of Assisi roamed those very paths of Agoncillo.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> In a saintly manner, he visited Medrano's Agoncillo castle, placed his mystical hands upon the ailing boy and miraculously healed him, securing the Medrano lineage in Agoncillo.<ref name=":2">Recoge esta historia, entre otros, D. Cesáreo Goicoechea en "Castillos de la Rioja, Logroño, 1949, y Fray Domingo Hernáez de Torres en "Primera parte de la Crónica ·[franciscana] de la Provincia de Burgos". Madrid, 1772.</ref><ref name=":1" />
The Medrano family generously donated some land, including a tower, situated close to the Ebro River within the city of Logroño as a gift to Saint Francis, where he established the first Spanish convent of his Order there.<ref name=":1" /> By the late 14th century, Diego López de Medrano, Lord of Agoncillo, royal steward and ambassador to John I of Castile, established a hereditary chaplaincy in the main chapel of the Monastery of San Francisco in Logroño.<ref name=":3">Government of Spain. Perpetual Chaplaincy of Diego López de Medrano. Order of the Franciscans. https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/show/4016417 </ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Medrano family held perpetual ecclesiastical patronage over the site, which functioned both as a center of worship and as a dynastic burial ground. This act formalized the family’s long-standing devotion to Saint Francis of Assisi. Although the convent met its demise in the 19th century, the remnants of its walls remain.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As a result, the Medrano family, lords of Agoncillo, are distinguished by their devotion to Saint Francis of Assisi.<ref name=":2" /> Under the House of Medrano, the convent of San Francisco in Logroño enjoyed both royal favor and ecclesiastical prominence throughout its history. It was exempted from municipal taxes, held jurisdiction over its own lands and dependencies, and maintained close ties to the monarchy.<ref name=":4" />
On 29 March 1537, Maundy Thursday, the Cofradía de la Santa Vera Cruz was established within the Convent of San Francisco in Logroño—then under the patronage of the House of Medrano.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /> According to records from the Diocesan Historical Archive, this confraternity—one of the oldest in the region—had its own chapel inside the convent. The guardian of the convent served as the chaplain of the cofradía, and the Franciscan community was considered part of the brotherhood.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Missionary work during the 5th CrusadeEdit
In the late spring of 1212, he set out for Jerusalem, but was shipwrecked by a storm on the Dalmatian coast, forcing him to return to Italy. On 8 May 1213, he was given the use of the mountain of La Verna (Alverna) as a gift from Count Orlando di Chiusi, who described it as "eminently suitable for whoever wishes to do penance in a place remote from mankind".<ref>Fioretti quoted in: St. Francis, The Little Flowers, Legends and Lauds, trans. N. Wydenbruck, ed. Otto Karrer (London: Sheed and Ward, 1979) 244.</ref> The mountain would become one of his favourite retreats for prayer.<ref name="chest130">Chesterton (1924), p. 130</ref>
During the Fifth Crusade in 1219 Francis went to Egypt where a Crusader army had been encamped for over a year besieging the walled city of Damietta. He was accompanied by Friar Illuminatus of Arce and hoped to convert the Sultan of Egypt or be martyred in the attempt. The Sultan, al-Kamil, a nephew of Saladin, had succeeded his father as Sultan of Egypt in 1218 and was encamped upstream of Damietta. A bloody and futile attack on the city was launched by the Christians on 29 August 1219, following which both sides agreed to a ceasefire that lasted four weeks.<ref>Runciman, Steven. History of the Crusades, vol. 3: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, Cambridge University Press (1951, paperback 1987), pp. 151–161.</ref> Probably during this interlude Francis and his companion crossed the Muslims' lines and were brought before the Sultan, remaining in his camp for a few days.Template:Sfn Reports give no information about what transpired during the encounter beyond noting that the Sultan received Francis graciously and that Francis preached to the Muslims. He returned unharmed.Template:Efn No known Arab sources mention the visit.Template:Sfn
In the upper basilica at Assisi, the ministering to lepers and smallpox sufferers is depicted in a late-1200s fresco cycle attributed to Giotto.Template:Efn
According to some late sources, the Sultan gave Francis permission to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land and even to preach there. All that can safely be asserted is that Francis and his companion left the Crusader camp for Acre, from where they embarked for Italy in the latter half of 1220. Drawing on a 1267 sermon by Bonaventure, later sources report that the Sultan secretly converted or accepted a death-bed baptism as a result of meeting Francis.Template:Efn
Whatever transpired as a result of Francis’ and al-Kamil’s meeting the Franciscans have maintained a presence in the Holy Land almost uninterrupted since 1217 and remain there (see Custody of the Holy Land). They received concessions from the Mameluke Sultan in 1333 with regard to certain Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem and (so far as concerns the Catholic Church) jurisdictional privileges from Pope Clement VI in 1342.<ref>Bulla Gratias agimus, commemorated by Pope John Paul II in a Letter dated 30 November 1992. See also Template:Harvnb. On the Franciscan presence, including a historical overview, see, generally the official website at Custodia and Custodian of the Holy Land</ref>
Reorganization of the Franciscan OrderEdit
The growing order of friars was divided into provinces; groups were sent to France, Germany, Hungary and Spain and to the East. Upon receiving a report of the martyrdom of five brothers in Morocco, Francis returned to Italy via Venice.<ref name="b162">Bonaventure (1867), p. 162</ref> Cardinal Ugolino di Conti was then nominated by the pope as the protector of the order. Another reason for Francis' return to Italy was that the Franciscan Order had grown at an unprecedented rate compared to previous religious orders, but its organizational sophistication had not kept up with this growth and had little more to govern it than Francis' example and simple rule. To address this problem, Francis prepared a new and more detailed Rule, the "First Rule" or "Rule Without a Papal Bull" (Regula prima, Regula non bullata), which again asserted devotion to poverty and the apostolic life. However, it also introduced a greater institutional structure, though this was never officially endorsed by the pope.Template:Sfn
Brother Peter was succeeded by Brother Elias as Vicar of Francis. Two years later, Francis modified the "First Rule", creating the "Second Rule" or "Rule With a Bull", which was approved by Pope Honorius III on 29 November 1223. As the order's official rule, it called on the friars "to observe the Holy Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, living in obedience without anything of our own and in chastity". In addition, it set regulations for discipline, preaching and entering the order. Once the rule was endorsed by the pope, Francis withdrew increasingly from external affairs.Template:Sfn During 1221 and 1222, he crossed Italy, first as far south as Catania in Sicily and afterwards as far north as Bologna.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Stigmata, final days and sainthoodEdit
While he was praying on the mountain of Verna, during a forty-day fast in preparation for Michaelmas (29 September), Francis is said to have had a vision on September 17, 1224, three days after the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, as a result of which he received the stigmata. Brother Leo, who had been with Francis at the time, left a clear and simple account of the event, the first definite account of the phenomenon of stigmata. "Suddenly he saw a vision of a seraph, a six-winged angel on a cross. This angel gave him the gift of the five wounds of Christ."<ref name="chest131">Chesterton (1924), p. 131</ref> Suffering from these stigmata and from trachoma, Francis received care in several cities (Siena, Cortona, Nocera) to no avail. He began to go blind and the bishop of Ostia ordered that his eyes be operated on which meant cauterizing the eyes with hot irons. Francis claims to have felt nothing at all when this was done.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the end, he was brought back to a hut next to the Porziuncola. Here he spent his last days dictating his spiritual testament. He died on the evening of Saturday, 3 October 1226, singing Psalm 141, "Voce mea ad Dominum".
On 16 July 1228, he was declared a saint by Pope Gregory IX (the former cardinal Ugolino di Conti, a friend of Francis and Cardinal Protector of the Order). The next day, the pope laid the foundation stone for the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi. Francis was buried on 25 May 1230, under the Lower Basilica, but his tomb was soon hidden on orders of Brother Elias to protect it from Saracen invaders. His burial place remained unknown until it was rediscovered in 1818. Pasquale Belli then constructed a crypt for the remains in the Lower Basilica. It was refashioned between 1927 and 1930 into its present form by Ugo Tarchi. In 1978, the remains of Francis were examined and confirmed by a commission of scholars appointed by Pope Paul VI and put into a glass urn in the ancient stone tomb.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In 1935, Dr. Edward Frederick Hartung concluded that Francis contracted trachoma while in Egypt and died of quartan malaria. This data was published in the Annals of Medical History.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
Character and legacyEdit
Francis set out to replicate Christ and literally carry out his work. This is important in understanding Francis' character, his affinity for the Eucharist and his respect for the priests who carried out the sacrament.Template:Sfn He preached: "Your God is of your flesh, He lives in your nearest neighbour, in every man."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
He and his followers celebrated and even venerated poverty, which was so central to his character that in his last written work, the Testament, he said that absolute personal and corporate poverty was the essential lifestyle for the members of his order.Template:Sfn
He believed that nature itself was the mirror of God. He called all creatures his "brothers" and "sisters" and even preached to the birds<ref name="b78" /><ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> and supposedly persuaded a wolf in Gubbio to stop attacking some locals if they agreed to feed the wolf. His deep sense of brotherhood under God embraced others and he declared that "he considered himself no friend of Christ if he did not cherish those for whom Christ died".Template:Sfn
Francis's visit to Egypt and attempted rapprochement with the Muslim world had far-reaching consequences, long past his own death, since after the fall of the Crusader Kingdom, it would be the Franciscans, of all Catholics, who would be allowed to stay on in the Holy Land and be recognized as "Custodians of the Holy Land" on behalf of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
At Greccio near Assisi, around 1220, Francis celebrated Christmas by setting up the first known presepio or crèche (Nativity scene).<ref name="b178">Bonaventure (1867), p. 178</ref> His nativity imagery reflected the scene in traditional paintings. He used real animals to create a living scene so that the worshipers could contemplate the birth of the child Jesus in a direct way, making use of the senses, especially sight.<ref name="b178" /> Both Thomas of Celano and Bonaventure, biographers of Francis, tell how he used only a straw-filled manger (feeding trough) set between a real ox and donkey.<ref name="b178" /> According to Thomas, it was beautiful in its simplicity, with the manger acting as the altar for the Christmas Mass.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Some modern commentators and animal rights advocates have mistakenly portrayed Francis as a vegetarian. However, historical records indicate that he did consume meat and his earliest biographers make no mention of him adhering to a meatless diet.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Francis's favourite dish was shrimp pie.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Nature and the environmentEdit
Francis preached the Christian doctrine that the world was created good and beautiful by God but suffers a need for redemption because of human sin. As someone who saw God reflected in nature, "St. Francis was a great lover of God's creation ..."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the Canticle of the Sun he gives God thanks for Brother Sun, Sister Moon, Brother Wind, Water, Fire and Earth, all of which he sees as rendering praise to God.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Many of the stories that surround the life of Francis say that he had a great love for animals and the environment.<ref name="b78">Bonaventure (1867), pp. 78–85</ref> The Fioretti ("Little Flowers") is a collection of legends and folklore that sprang up after his death. One account describes how one day, while Francis was travelling with some companions, they happened upon a place in the road where birds filled the trees on either side. Francis told his companions to "wait for me while I go to preach to my sisters the birds."<ref name="b78" /> The birds surrounded him, intrigued by the power of his voice and not one of them flew away. He is often portrayed with a bird, typically in his hand.<ref name=":0" />
Another legend from the Fioretti tells that in the city of Gubbio, where Francis lived for some time, was a wolf "terrifying and ferocious, who devoured men as well as animals". Francis went up into the hills and when he found the wolf, he made the sign of the cross and commanded the wolf to come to him and hurt no one. Then Francis led the wolf into the town and surrounded by startled citizens made a pact between them and the wolf. Because the wolf had "done evil out of hunger", the townsfolk were to feed the wolf regularly. In return, the wolf would no longer prey upon them or their flocks. In this manner Gubbio was freed from the menace of the predator.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
On 29 November 1979, Pope John Paul II declared Francis the patron saint of ecology.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On 28 March 1982, John Paul II said that Francis' love and care for creation was a challenge for contemporary Catholics and a reminder "not to behave like dissident predators where nature is concerned, but to assume responsibility for it, taking all care so that everything stays healthy and integrated, so as to offer a welcoming and friendly environment even to those who succeed us."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The same Pope wrote on the occasion of the World Day of Peace, 1 January 1990, that Francis "invited all of creation – animals, plants, natural forces, even Brother Sun and Sister Moon – to give honour and praise to the Lord. The poor man of Assisi gives us striking witness that when we are at peace with God we are better able to devote ourselves to building up that peace with all creation which is inseparable from peace among all peoples."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In 2015, Pope Francis published his encyclical letter Laudato Si' about the ecological crisis and "care for our common home", which takes its name from the Canticle of the Sun, which Francis of Assisi composed. It presents Francis as "the example par excellence of care for the vulnerable and of an integral ecology lived out joyfully and authentically".<ref>Pope Francis, "Laudato Si': On care for our common home", Libreria Editrice Vaticana.</ref> This inspired the birth of the Laudato Si' Movement, a global network of nearly 1000 organizations promoting the Laudato Si' message and the Franciscan approach to ecology.<ref>"Global Catholic climate group rebrands as Laudato Si' Movement", National Catholic Reporter, August 2, 2021.</ref>
Feast dayEdit
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Francis' feast day is observed on 4 October. A secondary feast in honour of the stigmata received by Francis, celebrated on 17 September, was inserted in the General Roman Calendar in 1585 (later than the Tridentine calendar) and suppressed in 1604, but was restored in 1615. In the New Roman Missal of 1969, it was removed again from the General Calendar, as something of a duplication of the main feast on 4 October and left to the calendars of certain localities and of the Franciscan Order.<ref>Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), p. 139</ref> Wherever the Tridentine Missal is used, however, the feast of the Stigmata remains in the General Calendar.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Francis is honoured with a Lesser Festival in the Church of England,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the Anglican Church of Canada, the Episcopal Church USA, the Old Catholic Churches, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and other churches and religious communities on 4 October.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
It is a popular practice on Francis' feast day for people to bring their pets and other animals to church for a blessing.<ref>Pappas, William. "The Patron Saint of Animals and Ecology", Earthday.org, October 6, 2016</ref>
Papal nameEdit
On 13 March 2013, upon his election as Pope, Archbishop and Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Argentina chose Francis as his papal name in honor of Francis of Assisi, becoming Pope Francis.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Marotta 2016">Template:Cite book</ref>
At his first audience on 16 March 2013, Pope Francis told journalists that he had chosen the name in honor of Francis of Assisi because of his concern for the poor.<ref name="Marotta 2016" /><ref name="Pope Francis explains decision to take St Francis of Assisi">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Fracis">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Michael Martínez, CNN Vatican analyst: Pope Francis' name choice 'precedent shattering', CNN (13 March 2013). Retrieved 13 March 2013.</ref> The pontiff recounted that Cardinal Cláudio Hummes had told him, "Don't forget the poor", right after the election; that made Bergoglio think of Francis.<ref>Laura Smith-Spark et al. : Pope Francis explains name, calls for church 'for the poor' CNN, 16 March 2013</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> It is the first time a pope has taken the name.Template:Efn
PatronageEdit
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On 18 June 1939, Pope Pius XII named Francis a joint patron saint of Italy along with Catherine of Siena with the apostolic letter "Licet Commissa".<ref>Pope Pius XII (18 June 1939). "Licet Commissa" (Apostolic Letter AAS 31, pp. 256–257)</ref> Pope Pius also mentioned the two saints in the laudative discourse he pronounced on 5 May 1949, in the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.Template:Citation needed
Francis is the patron of animals and ecology.<ref name="franciscanmedia.org" /> As such, he is the patron saint of the Laudato Si' Movement, a network that promotes the Franciscan ecological paradigm as outlined in the encyclical Laudato Si'.<ref>Laudato Si' Movement, "Who we are", retrieved March 2, 2023</ref>
He is also considered the patron against dying aloneTemplate:Citation needed; against fire; patron of the Franciscan Order and Catholic Action;<ref name="cns">"Feast of St. Francis of Assisi", Catholic News Service, October 4, 2018</ref> of families, peace and needleworkers.<ref name="newman">"Saint Francis of Assisi", Newman Connection</ref> and a number of religious congregations.<ref name=cns/>
He is the patron of many churches and other locations around the world, including: Italy;<ref name=newman/> San Pawl il-Baħar, Malta; Freising, Germany; Lancaster, England; Kottapuram, India; Buhi, Camarines Sur, Philippines; General Trias, Philippines; San Francisco;<ref name=newman/> Santa Fe, New Mexico; Colorado; Salina, Kansas; Metuchen, New Jersey; and Quibdó, Colombia.
Outside CatholicismEdit
AnglicanismEdit
One of the results of the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church during the 19th century was the re-establishment of religious orders, including some of Franciscan inspiration. The principal Anglican communities in the Franciscan tradition are the Community of St. Francis (women, founded 1905), the Poor Clares of Reparation (P.C.R.), the Society of St. Francis (men, founded 1934) and the Community of St. Clare (women, enclosed).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Citation needed
A U.S.-founded order within the Anglican world communion is the Seattle-founded order of Clares in Seattle (Diocese of Olympia), The Little Sisters of St. Clare.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The Anglican church retained the Catholic tradition of blessing animals on or near Francis' feast day of 4 October, and more recently Lutheran and other Protestant churches have adopted the practice.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
ProtestantismEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Several Protestant groups have emerged since the 19th century that strive to adhere to the teachings of St. Francis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
There are also some small Franciscan communities within European Protestantism and the Old Catholic Church. There are some Franciscan orders in Lutheran Churches,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> including the Order of Lutheran Franciscans, the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary and the Evangelische Kanaan Franziskus-Bruderschaft (Kanaan Franciscan Brothers).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Orthodox churchesEdit
Francis is not officially recognized as a saint by any Orthodox Church and the Orthodox Church has not pronounced any official view on the stigmata.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Orthodox Saint, bishop and theologian Ignatius Brianchaninov referred to a particular hagiographer of Francis of Assisi as being in delusion:
"As an example of a book written in the state of delusion called opinion, we cite the following: 'When Francis was caught up to heaven,' says a writer of his life, 'God the Father, on seeing him, was for a moment in doubt to as [sic] to whom to give the preference, to His Son by nature, or to His son by grace-Francis.' What can be more frightful or madder than this blasphemy, what can be sadder than this delusion?".<ref>Chapter 11 from "The Arena" by Ignatius Brianchaninov.</ref>
Francis of Assisi received limited veneration by Orthodox Christians in the Middle Ages, and there are Orthodox icons of him at the Church of Panagia Kera at Kritsa, in Crete.<ref>The church of Panagia Kera at Kritsa. Orthodox Crete. Retrieved from: https://orthodoxcrete.com/en/places/the-church-of-panagia-kera-at-kritsa/</ref>
Francis' feast is celebrated at New Skete, an Eastern Orthodox monastic community in Cambridge, New York founded by Catholic Franciscans in the 20th century.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
St. Joseph the Hesychast had Francis as his baptismal name, with the Greek tradition requiring a Saint's name to be taken at baptism.
Romanian Orthodox priest, iconographer and saint, Arsenie Boca painted an icon of Saints in Draganescu Church, which included St. Francis of Assisi.<ref name="Discovery">Comșuța Radu, The Discovery of a Mystery, 2018, Descoperirea unei Taine. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/41412677/The_Discovery_of_a_Mystery</ref>
Other religionsEdit
Outside of Christianity, other individuals and movements are influenced by the example and teachings of Francis. These include the popular philosopher Eckhart Tolle, who has made videos on the spirituality of Francis.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The interreligious spiritual community of Skanda Vale in Wales also takes inspiration from the example of Francis and models itself as an interfaith Franciscan order.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Main writingsEdit
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- Canticum Fratris Solis or Laudes Creaturarum; Canticle of the Sun, 1224
- Oratio ante Crucifixum, Prayer before the Crucifix, 1205 (extant in the original Umbrian dialect as well as in a contemporary Latin translation)
- Regula non bullata, the Earlier Rule, 1221
- Regula bullata, the Later Rule, 1223
- Testament, 1226
- Admonitions, 1205 to 1209<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref> For a complete list, see The Franciscan Experience.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Francis is considered the first Italian poet by some literary critics.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He believed commoners should be able to pray to God in their own language and often wrote in Umbrian rather than Latin.<ref name="Francis">Template:Cite book</ref>
The anonymous 20th-century prayer "Make Me an Instrument of Your Peace" is widely attributed to Francis, but there is no evidence for it.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In artEdit
The Franciscan Order promoted devotion to the life of Francis from his canonization onwards, and Francis appeared in European art soon after his death.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The order commissioned many works for Franciscan churches, either showing him with sacred figures or episodes from his life. There are large early fresco cycles in the Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi, parts of which are shown above.
There are countless seventeenth- and eighteenth-century depictions of Saint Francis of Assisi and a musical angel in churches and museums throughout western Europe. The titles of these depictions vary widely, at times describing Francis as "consoled", "comforted", in "ecstasy" or in "rapture"; the presence of the musical angel may or may not be mentioned.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Francis of Assisi in art
- Master of the bardi saint francis . St. Francis and scenes from his life 13 cent Santa croce.jpg
St. Francis and scenes from his life, 13th century, in Santa Croce, Florence.
- Saint Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata.jpg
Saint Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata, Jan van Eyck, c. 1430–1432, Turin version
- Domenico Veneziano - The Stigmatization of St Francis (predella 1) - WGA06432.jpg
The Stigmatization of St Francis, Domenico Veneziano, 1445
- Giovanni Bellini - Saint Francis in the Desert - Google Art Project.jpg
- Carlo Crivelli - Saint Francis Collecting the Blood of Christ - Google Art Project.jpg
Saint Francis with the Blood of Christ, Carlo Crivelli, c. 1500
- El Greco - Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata - Google Art Project.jpg
Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata, Studio of El Greco, 1585–1590
- Ribalta-san francisco-prado.jpg
Francis of Assisi with angel music, Francisco Ribalta, c. 1620
- Francisco de Zurbarán 053.jpg
Saint Francis in Meditation, Francisco de Zurbarán, 1639
- Saint Francis of Assisi by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg
Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy, Jusepe de Ribera, 1639
- Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy-Caravaggio (c.1595).jpg
Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy, Caravaggio, c. 1595
- Josep Benlliure Gil19.jpg
Francis of Assisi visiting his convent while far away, in a chariot of fire, José Benlliure y Gil (1855–1937)
- The Ecstasy of st Francis--Sassetta--Bernson collecton--Settignano.jpg
The Ecstasy of St. Francis, Stefano di Giovanni, 1444
- Nazario Gerardi as St. Francis in Francesco, giullare di Dio 2.jpg
Nazario Gerardi as Francis in The Flowers of St. Francis, 1950
- Statue in Cloisters said to have the cure for toothache. You can see teeth as votive offerings at the foot of the statue!.jpg
Statue in Askeaton Abbey, Ireland, claimed to cure toothache, 14th–15th century
- Late 15th - Early 16th century depiction of Saint Francis of Assisi, by Tiberio of Assisi.jpg
St Francis, Tiberio d'Assisi, 1470 – 1524
- El Greco Ecstasy of Saint Francis higher res.jpg
Ecstasy of St. Francis of Assisi, attributed to El Greco.
MediaEdit
FilmsEdit
- The Flowers of St. Francis, a 1950 film directed by Roberto Rossellini and co-written by Federico Fellini. Francis was played by Nazario Gerardi, a Franciscan friar from the monastery Nocera Inferiore.
- Francis of Assisi, a 1961 film directed by Michael Curtiz, based on the novel The Joyful Beggar by Louis de Wohl, starring Bradford Dillman as Francis. Dolores Hart, who plays Clare, later became a Benedictine nun.
- Francesco di Assisi, a 1966 made-for-television film directed by Liliana Cavani, starring Lou Castel as Francis.
- The Hawks and the Sparrows, a 1966 film directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini
- Brother Sun, Sister Moon, a 1972 film by Franco Zeffirelli, starring Graham Faulkner as Francis.
- Francesco, a 1989 film by Liliana Cavani, contemplatively paced, follows Francis of Assisi's evolution from a rich man's son to a religious humanitarian, and eventually to a full-fledged self-tortured saint. Francis is played by Mickey Rourke.
- St. Francis, a 2002 film directed by Michele Soavi, starring Raoul Bova as Francis.
- Clare and Francis, a 2007 film directed by Fabrizio Costa, starring Maria Palma Petruolo and Ettore Bassi
- Pranchiyettan and the Saint, a 2010 satirical Indian Malayalam film
- Finding St. Francis, a 2014 film directed by Paul Alexander
- L'ami – François d'Assise et ses frères (The friend – Francis of Assisi and his brothers),<ref name="movie-lami">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref> a 2016 film directed by Renaud Fely and Arnaud Louvet starring Elio Germano
- The Sultan and the Saint,<ref name="wildgoose.tv">Template:Citation</ref> a 2016 film directed by Alexander Kronemer, starring Alexander McPherson
- Sign of Contradiction,<ref name="wildgoose.tv" /> a 2018 documentary film featuring commentary by Fr. Dave Pivonka, Cardinal Raniero Cantalamessa and others, focusing on a revealing of the true St. Francis to modern audiences.
- In Search of St. Francis of Assisi,<ref>In Search of Saint Francis of Assisi, Green Apple Entertainment. Retrieved 20 December 2019.</ref> documentary featuring Franciscan friars and others
- The Letter: A Message for our Earth, a 2022 film on YouTube Originals by Nicolas Brown, telling the story of Saint Francis and the encyclical 'Laudato Si'.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
MusicEdit
- Franz Liszt:
- Cantico del sol di Francesco d'Assisi, S.4 (sacred choral work, 1862, 1880–81; versions of the Prelude for piano, S. 498c, 499, 499a; version of the Prelude for organ, S. 665, 760; version of the Hosannah for organ and bass trombone, S.677)
- St. François d'Assise: La Prédication aux oiseaux, No. 1 of Deux Légendes, S.175 (piano, 1862–63)
- Gabriel Pierné: Saint François d'Assise (oratorio, 1912)
- William Henry Draper: All Creatures of Our God and King (hymn paraphrase of Canticle of the Sun, published 1919)
- Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco: Fioretti (voice and orchestra, 1920)
- Gian Francesco Malipiero: San Francesco d'Assisi (soloists, chorus and orchestra, 1920–21)
- Hermann Suter: Le Laudi (The Praises) or Le Laudi di San Francesco d'Assisi, based on the Canticle of the Sun, (oratorio, 1923)
- Amy Beach: Canticle of the Sun (soloists, chorus and orchestra, 1928)
- Paul Hindemith: Nobilissima Visione (ballet 1938)
- Leo Sowerby: Canticle of the Sun (cantata for mixed voices with accompaniment for piano or orchestra, 1944)
- Francis Poulenc: Quatre petites prières de saint François d'Assise (men's chorus, 1948)
- Seth Bingham: The Canticle of the Sun (cantata for chorus of mixed voices with soli ad lib. and accompaniment for organ or orchestra, 1949)
- William Walton: Cantico del sol (chorus, 1973–74)
- Olivier Messiaen: St. François d'Assise (opera, 1975–83)
- Template:Interlanguage link: Święty Franciszek z Asyżu (oratorio for soprano, tenor, baritone, mixed chorus and orchestra, 1976)
- Peter Janssens: Franz von Assisi, Musikspiel (Musical play, text: Wilhelm Wilms, 1978)
- Michele Paulicelli: Template:Interlanguage link (musical theater, 1981)
- John Michael Talbot: Troubador of the Great King (1981), double-LP composed in honor of the 800th birthday of St. Francis of Assisi.
- Karlheinz Stockhausen: Luzifers Abschied (1982), scene 4 of the opera Samstag aus Licht
- Libby Larsen: I Will Sing and Raise a Psalm (SATB chorus and organ, 1995)
- Sofia Gubaidulina: Sonnengesang (solo cello, chamber choir and percussion, 1997)
- Template:Interlanguage link: Balada de Francisco (voices accompanied by guitar, 1999)
- Angelo Branduardi: L'infinitamente piccolo (album, 2000)
- Lewis Nielson: St. Francis Preaches to the Birds (chamber concerto for violin, 2005)
- Peter Reulein (composer) / Helmut Schlegel (libretto): Laudato si' (oratorio, 2016)
- Daniel Dorff: Flowers of St. Francis (solo for Bass Clarinet, 2013)
- Mel Hornyak & Elliot Valentine Lee: Litany of the Martyrs, appears in Adamandi (musical number, 2022)
Selected biographical booksEdit
Hundreds of books have been written about him. The following suggestions are from Franciscan friar Conrad Harkins (1935–2020), director of the Franciscan Institute at St. Bonaventure University.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Paul Sabatier, Life of St. Francis of Assisi (Scribner's, 1905).
- Johannes Jørgensen, St. Francis of Assisi: A Biography (translated by T. O’Conor Sloane; Longmans, 1912).
- Arnaldo Fortini, Francis of Assisi (translated by Helen Moak, Crossroad, 1981).
- Nikos Kazantzakis, Saint Francis (Ο Φτωχούλης του Θεού, in Greek; 1954)
- John Moorman, St. Francis of Assisi (SPCK, 1963)
- John Moorman, "The Spirituality of St. Francis of Assisi" (Our Sunday Visitor, 1977).
- Erik Doyle, St. Francis and the Song of Brotherhood (Seabury, 1981).
- Raoul Manselli, St. Francis of Assisi (translated by Paul Duggan; Franciscan, 1988).
OtherEdit
- In Rubén Darío's poem "Los Motivos del LoboTemplate:-" ("The Reasons of the Wolf") St. Francis tames a terrible wolf only to discover that the human heart harbours darker desires than those of the beast.
- In Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, Ivan Karamazov invokes the name of "Pater Seraphicus", an epithet applied to St. Francis, to describe Alyosha's spiritual guide Zosima. The reference is found in Goethe's Faust, Part 2, Act 5, lines 11,918–25.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- In Mont Saint Michel and Chartres, Henry Adams' chapter on the "Mystics" discusses Francis extensively.
- Francesco's Friendly World was a 1996–97 direct-to-video Christian animated series produced by Lyrick Studios that was about Francesco and his talking animal friends as they rebuild the Church of San Damiano.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Rich Mullins co-wrote Canticle of the Plains, a musical, with Mitch McVicker. Released in 1997, it was based on the life of St. Francis of Assisi, but told as a Western story.
- G. K. Chesterton's book St. Francis of Assisi, a biographical and philosophical explanation of St. Francis<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See alsoEdit
- Feast of Saint Francis
- St. François d'Assise, an opera by Olivier Messiaen
- Blessing of animals
- Fraticelli
- List of places named after St. Francis
- Pardon of Assisi
- St. Francis of Assisi, patron saint archive
- Society of St. Francis
- St. Benedict's Cave, which contains a portrait of Francis made during his lifetime
- St. Juniper, one of Francis' original followers
- Wolf of Gubbio
- Trinitarian indwelling
PrayersEdit
- Canticle of the Sun, a prayer by Francis
- Little Office of the Passion, composed by Francis
- Prayer of St. Francis, a prayer often misattributed to Francis
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
General referencesEdit
- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite news.
- Scripta Leonis, Rufini et Angeli Sociorum S. Francisci: The Writings of Leo, Rufino and Angelo Companions of St. Francis, original manuscript, 1246, compiled by Brother Leo and other companions (1970, 1990, reprinted with corrections), Oxford: Oxford University Press, edited by Rosalind B. Brooke, in Latin and English, Template:ISBN, containing testimony recorded by intimate, longtime companions of St. Francis.
- Francis of Assisi, The Little Flowers (Fioretti), London, 2012. limovia.net Template:ISBN.
- Bonaventure; Cardinal Manning (1867). The Life of St. Francis of Assisi (from the Legenda Sancti Francisci) (1988 ed.). Rockford, Illinois: TAN Books & Publishers Template:ISBN.
- Chesterton, Gilbert Keith (1924). St. Francis of Assisi (14th ed.). Garden City, New York: Image Books.
- Englebert, Omer (1951). The Lives of the Saints. New York: Barnes & Noble.
- Karrer, Otto, ed., St. Francis, The Little Flowers, Legends and Lauds, trans. N. Wydenbruck (London: Sheed and Ward, 1979).
- Template:Cite book
Further readingEdit
- Template:Cite magazine.
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- The Little Flowers [Fioretti] of Saint Francis (Translated by Raphael Brown), Doubleday, 1998. Template:ISBN.
- Valerie Martin, Salvation: Scenes from the Life of St. Francis, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001. Template:ISBN.
- Giovanni Morello and Laurence B. Kanter, eds., The Treasury of Saint Francis of Assisi, Electa, Milan, 1999. Catalog of exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, March 16 – June 27, 1999.
- Template:Cite book
- Paul Moses, The Saint and the Sultan: The Crusades, Islam and Francis of Assisi's Mission of Peace, New York: Doubleday, 2009.
- Donald Spoto, Reluctant Saint: The Life of Francis of Assisi, New York: Viking Compass, 2002. Template:ISBN.
- Augustine Thompson, O.P., Francis of Assisi: A New Biography, Cornell University Press, 2012.Template:ISBN.
- André Vauchez, Francis of Assisi: The Life and Afterlife of a Medieval Saint, Yale University Press, 2012. Template:ISBN.
External linksEdit
- "St. Francis of Assisi", Encyclopædia Britannica online
- "St. Francis of Assisium, Confessor", Butler's Lives of the Saints
- The Franciscan Archive
- St. Francis of Assisi – Catholic Saints & Angels
- Here Followeth the Life of St. Francis from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend
- Colonnade Statue in St. Peter's Square
- Founder Statue in St. Peter's Basilica
- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}
- Template:Internet Archive author
- Template:Librivox author
- Saint Francis of Assisi Exhibition at the National Gallery, London, May 6 – July 30, 2023. Review: Julian Bell, "Opulence and Humility", The New York Review of Books, August 17, 2023. Review: Mary Wellesley "St Francis of Assisi", London Review of Books, 27 July 2023.
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