Tigranes the Great

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Tigranes II, more commonly known as Tigranes the Great (Tigran Mets in Armenian;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn Template:Efn 140–55 BC), was a king of Armenia. A member of the Artaxiad dynasty, he ruled from 95 BC to 55 BC. Under his reign, the Armenian kingdom expanded beyond its traditional boundaries and reached its peak, allowing Tigranes to claim the title Great King or King of Kings. His empire for a short time was the most powerful state to the east of the Roman Republic.

Either the son or nephew of Artavasdes I, Tigranes was given as a hostage to Mithridates II of Parthia after Armenia came under Parthian suzerainty. After ascending to the Armenian throne, he rapidly expanded his kingdom by invading or annexing Roman and Parthian client-kingdoms. Tigran decided to ally with Mithridates VI of Pontus by marrying his daughter Cleopatra. At its height, Tigranes' empire stretched from the Pontic Alps to Mesopotamia and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. With captured vassals, his lands even reached the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were forcibly relocated to his new capital, Tigranocerta. An admirer of the Greek culture, Tigranes invited many Greek rhetoricians and philosophers to his court, and his capital was noted for its Hellenistic architecture.

Armenia came into direct conflict with Rome after Mithridates VI was forced to seek refuge in Tigranes' court. In 69 BC, Tigranes was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tigranocerta by a Roman army under the command of Lucullus, and a year later he met another major defeat at Artaxata, the old Armenian capital. The recall of Lucullus gave Tigranes a brief respite, but in 66 BC Armenia faced another Roman invasion led by Pompey, aided by Tigranes' own son, Tigranes the Younger. Tigranes chose to surrender and was allowed to retain the heartland of his kingdom as a Roman buffer state, while all of his conquests were annexed. He continued to rule Armenia as a client-king of Rome until his death around 55 BC at the age of 85.

Flag of the Artaxiad DynastyEdit

The flag of the Artaxiad Dynasty symbolizes the military strength and nature of the dynasty, which ruled Armenia from 189 BC to 1 AD.

Early yearsEdit

In approximately 120 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates II (Template:Reign) invaded Armenia and made its king Artavasdes I acknowledge Parthian suzerainty.Template:Sfn Artavasdes I was forced to give the Parthians Tigranes, who was either his son or nephew, as a hostage.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Tigranes lived in the Parthian court at Ctesiphon, where he was schooled in Parthian culture.Template:Sfn Tigranes remained a hostage at the Parthian court until Template:Circa, when Mithridates II released him and appointed him as the king of Armenia.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Tigranes ceded an area called "seventy valleys" in the Caspiane to Mithridates II, either as a pledge or because Mithridates II demanded it.Template:Sfn Tigranes' daughter Ariazate had also married a son of Mithridates II, which has been suggested by the modern historian Edward Dąbrowa to have taken place shortly before he ascended the Armenian throne as a guarantee of his loyalty.Template:Sfn Tigranes would remain a Parthian vassal until the late 80s BC.Template:Sfn

When he came to power, the foundation upon which Tigranes was to build his Empire was already in place, a legacy of the founder of the Artaxiad dynasty, Artaxias I, and subsequent kings. The mountains of Armenia, however, formed natural borders between the different regions of the country and as a result, the feudalistic nakharars had significant influence over the regions or provinces in which they were based. This did not suit Tigranes, who wanted to create a centralized empire. He thus proceeded by consolidating his power within Armenia before embarking on his campaign.<ref name="Badmoutioun Hayots, Volume I">Template:Cite book</ref>

He deposed Artanes, the last king of the Kingdom of Sophene and a descendant of Zariadres.<ref name="Strabo1">Strabo. Geographica, 11.14.15.</ref>

Alliance with PontusEdit

During the First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC), Tigranes supported Mithridates VI of Pontus, but was careful not to become directly involved in the war.

He rapidly built up his power and established an alliance with Mithridates VI, marrying his daughter Cleopatra. Tigranes agreed to extend his influence in the East, while Mithridates set to conquer Roman land in Asia Minor and in Europe. By creating a stronger Hellenistic state, Mithridates was to contend with the well-established Roman foothold in Europe.<ref name="Badmoutioun Hayots, Volume I"/> Mithridates executed a planned general attack on Romans and Italians in Asia Minor, tapping into local discontent with the Romans and their taxes and urging the peoples of Asia Minor to raise against foreign influence. The slaughter of 80,000 people in the province of Asia Minor was known as the Asiatic Vespers. The two kings' attempts to control Cappadocia and then the massacres resulted in guaranteed Roman intervention. The senate decided that Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who was then one of the consuls, would command the army against Mithridates.<ref>Appian. The Civil Wars, 1.55.</ref>

René Grousset remarked that in their alliance Mithridates was somewhat subservient to Tigranes.<ref name="Grousset">Template:Citation</ref>

Wars against Roman and Parthian client kingdomsEdit

File:Map of the Armenian Empire of Tigranes (English).svg

Tigranes the Great's Armenian Empire: Countries, composing parts of the Empire

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After the death of Mithridates II of Parthia his son Gotarzes I succeeded him.<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb</ref> This was disputed by Sinatruces which caused a Parthian civil war. Tigranes, with Rome involved in a Social War and Parthia involved in a succession dispute, quickly invaded Cappadocia but was forced out by the Roman consul Sulla. Between 88 and 85 BC, he retook Adiabene, Gordyene, and Media Atropatene.Template:Sfn

In 83 BC, after bloody strife for the throne of Syria, governed by the Seleucids, the Syrians decided to choose Tigranes as the protector of their kingdom and offered him the crown of Syria.Template:Sfn Magadates was appointed as his governor in Antioch.<ref>The House Of Seleucus V2 by Edwyn Robert Bevan.</ref> He then conquered Phoenicia and Cilicia, effectively putting an end to the last remnants of the Seleucid Empire, though a few holdout cities appear to have recognized the shadowy boy-king Seleucus VII Philometor as the legitimate king during his reign. The southern border of his domain reached as far as Ptolemais (modern Akko). Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were sent to his new metropolis of Tigranocerta.

At its height, his empire extended from the Pontic Alps (in modern north-eastern Turkey) to Mesopotamia, and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. A series of victories led him to assume the Achaemenid title of King of Kings, which was contemporaneously being used by the Parthian kings, appearing on coins struck after 85 BC.<ref name="mart">Template:Cite journal</ref> He was called "Tigranes the Great" by many Western historians and writers, such as Plutarch. The "King of Kings" never appeared in public without having four kings attending him. Cicero, referring to his success in the east, said that he "made the Republic of Rome tremble before the prowess of his arms."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

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Wars against RomeEdit

File:Tigranes four Kings.jpg

A 19th-century illustration of Tigranes with four vassal kings

Mithridates VI of Pontus had found refuge in Armenian land after confronting Rome, considering the fact that Tigranes was his ally and relative. The King of Kings eventually came into direct contact with Rome. The Roman commander, Lucullus, demanded the expulsion of Mithridates from Armenia – to comply with such a demand would be, in effect, to accept the status of vassal to Rome and thus Tigranes refused.Template:Sfn Charles Rollin, in his Ancient History, says:

Tigranes, to whom Lucullus had sent an ambassador, though of no great power in the beginning of his reign, had enlarged it so much by a series of successes, of which there are few examples, that he was commonly surnamed "King of Kings." After having overthrown and almost ruined the family of the kings, successors of the great Seleucus; after having very often humbled the pride of the Parthians, transported whole cities of Greeks into Media, conquered all Syria and Palestine, and given laws to the Arabians called Scenites, he reigned with an authority respected by all the princes of Asia. The people paid him honors after the manners of the East, even to adoration.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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Lucullus' reaction was an attack that was so precipitate that he took Tigranes by surprise. According to Roman historians Mithrobazanes, one of Tigranes' generals, told Tigranes of the Roman approach. Tigranes was, according to Keaveney, so impressed by Mithrobazanes' courage that he appointed Mithrobazanes to command an army against Lucullus – Tigranes sent Mithrobarzanes with 2,000 to 3,000 cavalry to expel the invader. Mithrobarzanes charged the Romans while they were setting up their camp, but was met by a 3,500-strong sentry force and his horsemen were routed. He perished in the attempt.<ref>Philip Matyszak, Mithridates the Great, pp 127-128; Lee Frantatuono, Lucullus, pp 83-84; Plutarch, Life of Lucullus, XII.84.</ref>Template:Sfn After this defeat, Tigranes withdrew north to Armenia to regroup, leaving Lucullus free to besiege Tigranocerta.Template:Sfn

When Tigranes had gathered a large army, he returned to confront Lucullus. On October 6, 69 BC, Tigranes' much larger force was decisively defeated by the Roman army under Lucullus in the Battle of Tigranocerta. Tigranes' treatment of the inhabitants (the majority of the population had been forced to move to the city) led disgruntled city guards to open the gates of the city to the Romans. Learning of this, Tigranes hurriedly sent 6000 cavalrymen to the city in order to rescue his wives and some of his assets.<ref name="Badmoutioun Hayots, Volume I"/> Tigranes escaped capture with a small escort.

On October 6, 68 BC, the Romans approached the old capital of Artaxata. Tigranes' and Mithridates' combined Armeno-Pontic army of 70,000 men formed up to face them but were resoundingly defeated. Once again, both Mithridates and Tigranes evaded capture by the victorious Romans.Template:Sfn

The long campaigning and hardships that Lucullus' troops had endured for years, combined with a perceived lack of reward in the form of plunder,<ref name="Badmoutioun Hayots, Volume I"/> led to successive mutinies among the legions in 68–67. Frustrated by the rough terrain of Northern Armenia and seeing the worsening morale of his troops, Lucullus moved back south and put Nisibis under siege. Tigranes concluded (wrongly) that Nisibis would hold out and sought to regain those parts of Armenia that the Romans had captured.Template:Sfn Despite his continuous success in battle, Lucullus could still not capture either one of the monarchs. With Lucullus' troops now refusing to obey his commands, but agreeing to defend positions from attack, the Senate sent Pompey to recall Lucullus to Rome and take over his command.

Pompey and submission to RomeEdit

File:Տիգրան Մեծ Statue of Tigranes the Great in Yerevan.jpg

A modern statue of Tigranes in Yerevan

In 67 BC<ref>The Encyclopaedia of Military History, R E Dupuy and T N Dupuy</ref> Pompey was given the task of defeating Mithridates and Tigranes.Template:Sfn Pompey first concentrated on attacking Mithridates while distracting Tigranes by engineering a Parthian attack on Gordyene.Template:Sfn Phraates III, the Parthian king, was soon persuaded to take things a little further than an annexation of Gordyene when a son of Tigranes (also named Tigranes) went to join the Parthians and persuaded Phraates to invade Armenia in an attempt to replace the elder Tigranes with the Tigranes the Younger.Template:Sfn Tigranes decided not to meet the invasion in the field but instead ensured that his capital, Artaxata, was well defended and withdrew to the hill country. Phraates soon realized that Artaxata would not fall without a protracted siege, the time for which he could not spare due to his fear of plots at home. Once Phraates left, Tigranes came back down from the hills and drove his son from Armenia. The son then fled to Pompey.Template:Sfn

In 66 BC, Pompey advanced into Armenia with Tigranes the Younger, and Tigranes, now almost 75 years old, surrendered. Pompey allowed him to retain his kingdom shorn of his conquests as he planned to have Armenia as a buffer state<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> and he took 6,000 talents/180 tonnes of silver. His unfaithful son was sent back to Rome as a prisoner.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Tigranes continued to rule Armenia as a client-king of Rome.Template:Sfn He died in 55/54, at age 85. He is mentioned in Macrobii, a Roman essay detailing the famous long-livers of the day attributed to Lucian.<ref>Lucian. Macrobii, 15.</ref>

IssueEdit

Tigranes had four sons and three daughters.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The eldest son, Zariadres, according to Appian and Valerius Maximus rebelled against Tigranes and was killed during a battle (possibly late 90s BCE).Template:Sfn<ref>Valerius Maximus. Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX, Liber IX, ext.3.</ref> Appian also mentions an unnamed younger son who was executed for conspiring against Tigranes: he disregarded his father's health and wore Tigranes's crown (Tigranes having been injured during a hunting accident).Template:Sfn His third son, Tigranes the Younger, who showed great care for his injured father and was rewarded for his loyalty,Template:Sfn has already been mentioned. He is also alleged to have led a military campaign in 82 BCE.Template:Sfn Tigranes was succeeded by his fourth and youngest son, Artavasdes II.

One daughter of Tigranes according to Cassius Dio married Mithridates I of Atropatene.Template:Sfn<ref>Cassius Dio. The Roman History, XXXVI, 14.</ref> Another daughter married Parthian prince Pacorus, son of Orodes II.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Parchments of Avroman also mention his third daughter, Ariazate "Automa", who married Gotarzes I of Parthia.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Although Cleopatra of Pontus is usually considered to be their mother (Appian writes that she gave birth to three sons),Template:Sfn historian Gagik Sargsyan considered only Artavasdes II and one of the unnamed daughters to be her children.Template:Sfn According to him, the rest had a different mother and were born before Tigranes became king.Template:Sfn The reasoning behind it is that if Tigranes the Younger did indeed lead a campaign in 82 BCE, then he and hence his two older brothers (and possibly two sisters) would be too old to be Cleopatra's children.Template:Sfn Another argument supporting this claim would be the situation with Ariazate. As she was probably the mother of Orodes I (Template:Reign),Template:Sfn then Ariazate could not have been the daughter of Cleopatra who married Tigranes only in 94 BCE at the age of 15 or 16.Template:Sfn Sargsyan also proposed a possible candidate as Tigranes's first wife and the children's mother: Artaxiad princess Zaruhi, a daughter of Tigranes's paternal uncle Zariadres and granddaughter of Artaxias I.Template:Sfn He also considered likely that the reason for the rebellion of Tigranes's son Zariadres was the birth of Artavasdes who was declared the heir by virtue of being born to a king and not a prince.Template:Sfn

Imperial ideologyEdit

Tigranes is a typical example of the mixed culture of his period blending Iranian and Hellenistic influences. Like the majority Armenia's inhabitants, Tigranes was a follower of Zoroastrianism.Template:Efn Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb</ref> The ceremonial of his court was of Achaemenid origin, and also incorporated Parthian aspects.Template:Sfn He had Greek rhetoricians and philosophers in his court, possibly as a result of the influence of his queen, Cleopatra.Template:Sfn Greek was also possibly spoken in the court.Template:Sfn Following the example of the Parthians, Tigranes adopted the title of Philhellene ("friend of the Greeks").Template:Sfn The layout of his capital Tigranocerta was a blend of Greek and Iranian architecture.Template:Sfn Nina Garsoïan argued that his Greek-speaking court, the Hellenistic capital of Tigranocerta, and handsome coinage marked the "high-water mark of Hellenic influence in Armenia."<ref name="Garsoian94">Template:Cite book</ref>

CoinageEdit

File:Tetradrachm Tigranes II.jpg

A tetradrachm of Tigranes found in Artaxata

The coins of Tigranes are the most notable from Armenia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> His coinage has been widely admired by numismatists and historians,Template:Efn and regarded as "the finest ever struck by an Armenian monarch".<ref name="Lang70"/> His coinage illustrates the two major sources of Armenian cultures of his time: Iranian and Greek.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book </ref>

His coins adhere to the pattern set by the successors of Alexander the Great.Template:Sfn Dickran Kouymjian found "the exceptionally fine engraving" of Tigranes's portrait reflective of "direct classical inspiration".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The observe depicts him in profile<ref name="Kouymjian2"/> with a "determined, strong face" wearing a high tiara with broad flaps,<ref name="Newell"/><ref name="Richter"/> which has come to be known as the Armenian tiara.<ref name="Newell"/> His "striking portrait" depicts the king "clean shaven according to Greek taste".<ref name="Newell"/> Gisela Richter linked his portrait to the style of the Roman Republican period.<ref name="Richter"/>

On his crown, a pair of birds flank a star.<ref name="Kouymjian2"/> The star of divinity and the birds of prey are both Iranian aspects, with the latter associated with the khvarenah (kingly glory) and possibly also a symbol of the bird of Verethragna.Template:Sfn

The chief mint was in Antioch,<ref name="Newell"/> with silver tetradrachms minted there replacing the issues of the former Seleucid Empire.<ref name="Newell"/> The reverse of the coins minted at Antioch shows the Tyche of Antioch by the sculptor Eutychides.<ref name="Richter"/> His coins are the earliest to depict the Tyche of Antioch.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Legacy and recognitionEdit

Historical assessmentEdit

File:Tigranes 2.jpg

A late 19th century depiction of Tigranes based on his coinage<ref>Template:Cite book, from 1898</ref>

Tigranes has long been recognized as the greatest of Armenian monarchs.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> At its peak, his empire covered a territory of Template:Convert with a multi-ethnic<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> population estimated at ten million.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn He is the sole ruler in history under whom the entire Armenian plateau (and all Armenian-inhabited lands) was unified under a single native ruler.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn Robert H. Hewsen noted, however, that he did not add Lesser Armenia to his kingdom, which remained under the control of Mithradates.Template:Sfn The preeminent early Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi called him the "most powerful and intelligent and the most valiant" of all Armenian kings. "He was supreme among men and by showing his valor he glorified our nation."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Armenian folk tradition, he was identified with the Iranian hero Fereydun (Thraetaona), the slayer of the dragon Azhi Dahaka.<ref>Template:Cite journal (archived PDF)</ref>

Compared to Mithridates Eupator, Tigranes was marginalized by Roman sources.Template:Sfn In one exception, Velleius Paterculus (2.33.1) introduced Tigranes as "the most important of the kings" (regum maximum).Template:Sfn Western scholarship has largely adopted the Roman bias against Tigranes. Théodore Reinach considered Tigranes a coward and an opportunist.<ref>Reinach, T. (1890). Mithridate Eupator, roi de Pont. Paris, Firmin-Didot, pp. 344-345</ref>Template:Sfn On the contrary, René Grousset praised him as "a great yet underrated monarch who undoubtedly deserves much more admiration from history" than Mithridates, who brought about the downfall of his empire, while "Tigranes ensured the survival of his people for eternity."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The memory of his empire vanished swiftly.Template:Sfn Theo van Lint argued that while he was not able to consolidate his territorial gains, the forty year peace he established had the "important effect of developing Greater Armenia and the network of clan relationships that would prove crucial for the preservation of Armenian identity in subsequent periods."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Vahan Hovhannisyan similarly argued that he turned the Armenian people into a nation, which "survived for 500 years with the momentum he provided."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The historian Leo believed that while he established complete national independence, Tigranes behaved like an "Asian despot" and "arrogance blinded him."<ref>Template:Cite journal (PDF)</ref> Leo was dismissive of what he saw as the long-gone legacy of Tigranes, contrasting it with the persistent legacy of the Armenian alphabet invented by Mesrop Mashtots.<ref>Template:Cite book; originally published as: Template:Cite book</ref> Hewsen argued that his short-lived empire was "not all that historically significant" and found it "inappropriate to glorify the activities of an Armenian conqueror whose treatment of his subjects (e.g., deporting them by the thousands from their homes to populate his new capital) is considered to be reprehensible by Armenian historians when they see it inflicted upon the Armenians themselves."Template:Sfn

Armenian nationalismEdit

His empire is often popularly called "sea to sea Armenia" (Template:Langx, tsovits tsov Hayastan) as it extended from the Caspian to the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He has been a source of pride for modern Armenian nationalists,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> with his "sea to sea" empire serving as an inspiration for the most maximalist claims of contemporary Armenian nationalism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> George Bournoutian noted that Armenians "revere" Tigranes and sometimes "endow him with modern nationalistic traits and ignore the fact that Tigranes possessed a more Hellenistic and, occasionally, Persian, outlook, rather than that of a modern Armenian."<ref name="Bournoutian"/> Eric Hobsbawm suggested that modern Armenian nationalists, in an effort to find a "suitable (and suitably impressive) national state in the past", had to go back to the times of Tigranes in the first century BC, when the "last sufficiently important kingdom is to be found."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn

In European cultureEdit

In The Art of War (1521), Niccolò Machiavelli attributes Tigranes' military failure to his excessive reliance on his cavalry.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In the modern period, Tigranes has appeared in European culture. He is portrayed in the 1619 English Renaissance drama A King and No King by Beaumont and Fletcher.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> King Tigranes at the feet of a Roman commander Lucullus (Template:Circa) is an etching by Giovanni Gioseffo dal Sole.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Approximately two dozen operas composed by Italian and German composers during the 18th century bear the title Tigrane. Some of these were inspired by Tigranes the Great.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The most notable are composed by Antonio Vivaldi (1724), Johann Adolph Hasse (1729), and Christoph Willibald Gluck (1743),<ref name="Fuse"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> with librettos by Pietro Antonio Bernardoni for the first and Francesco Silvani for the latter two.<ref name="Fuse">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Modern tributesEdit

In visual arts, Tigranes has been depicted by Yervand Kochar in 1940 (gouache on paper)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and in a 1959 mural crafted by Van Khachatur inside the Matenadaran in Yerevan, symbolizing Armenia's Hellenistic period.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

His portrait (from coinage) is depicted on 1988 Soviet and 2009 Armenian postage stamps.

In the early 1990s, a major avenue in central Yerevan, called after the October Revolution was renamed after him.Template:Sfn He is the only Armenian king to appear on the Armenian currency,Template:Sfn specifically on the 500 dram banknote, which was in circulation from 1993 to 2005.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Three statues of Tigranes have been erected in Armenia, including at the President's Residence (2000), in Yerevan's Nor Nork District (2004), and in the city of Vagharshapat (2016).

The Order of Tigran the Great, established in 2002,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> is awarded by the president of Armenia "for exceptional services" rendered to the Republic of Armenia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>