Wakame
Template:Short description Template:Speciesbox Template:Nutritional value
Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida) is a species of kelp native to cold, temperate coasts of the northwest Pacific Ocean. As an edible seaweed, it has a subtly sweet, but distinctive and strong flavour and satiny texture. It is most often served in soups and salads.
Wakame has long been collected for food in East Asia,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and sea farmers in Japan have cultivated wakame since the eighth century (Nara period).<ref>Man'yōshū "比多潟の 磯のわかめの 立ち乱え 我をか待つなも 昨夜も今夜も" (Poetry on the theme of Wakame). Template:Cite book</ref>
Although native to cold, temperate coastal areas of Japan, Korea, China, and Russia,<ref name="epsteingraham-undaria">Template:Cite journal</ref> it has established itself in temperate regions around the world, including New Zealand, the United States, Belgium,<ref name="hillewaerthans-wakame">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> France, Great Britain, Spain, Italy, Argentina, Australia and Mexico.<ref name="torres-wakame">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="james-et-al-journal">Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:As of, the Invasive Species Specialist Group has listed the species on its list of 100 worst globally invasive species.<ref name=issg>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Wakame, as with all other kelps and brown algae, is plant-like in appearance, but is unrelated to true plants, being, instead, a photosynthetic, multicellular stramenopile protist of the SAR supergroup.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
NamesEdit
The primary common name is derived from the Japanese name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- In English, it can also be called sea mustard.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- In Chinese, it is called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (裙带菜)<ref name=Abbott>Template:Cite book</ref> or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (海帶芽)
- In French, it is called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('sea fern').
- In Korean, it is called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (미역).<ref name=Abbott/>
EtymologyEdit
In Old Japanese, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} stood for edible seaweeds in general as opposed to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} standing for algae. In kanji, such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were applied to transcribe the word.<ref name="NKJ">小学館国語辞典編集部 (ed.) (2006), 『日本国語大辞典』 精選版 (Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, Shorter Edition), 小学館</ref> Among seaweeds, wakame was likely most often eaten, therefore {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} especially meant wakame.<ref>There is also a theory : initially {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} stood for only wakame, and expanded to the word for general seaweeds afterwards. See 小島憲之 et al. （ed. & tr.） (1995), 『新編 日本古典文学全集7 萬葉集（2）』, 小学館, p.225</ref> It expanded later to other seaweeds like kajime, hirome (kombu), arame, etc. Wakame is derived from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, lit. 'young seaweed'). If this {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is a eulogistic prefix, the same as the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} of tamagushi, wakame likely stood for seaweeds widely in ancient times.<ref name="NKJ" /> In the Man'yōshū, in addition to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (both are read as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, soft wakame) can be seen. Besides, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, lit. 'beautiful algae'), which often appeared in the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, may be wakame depending on poems.
History in the WestEdit
The earliest appearance in Western documents is probably in the Portuguese Nippo Jisho (1603), as Vacame.<ref name="NKJ" />
In 1867 the word wakame appeared in an English-language publication, A Japanese and English Dictionary, by James C. Hepburn.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Starting in the 1960s, the word wakame started to be used widely in the United States, and the product (imported in dried form from Japan) became widely available at natural food stores and Asian-American grocery stores, due to the influence of the macrobiotic movement, and in the 1970s with the growing number of Japanese restaurants and sushi bars.
AquacultureEdit
Japanese and Korean sea-farmers have grown wakame for centuries, and are still both the leading producers and consumers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Wakame has also been cultivated in France since 1983, in sea fields established near the shores of Brittany.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Wild-grown wakame is harvested in Tasmania, Australia, and then sold in restaurants in Sydney<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and also sustainably hand-harvested from the waters of Foveaux Strait in Southland, New Zealand and freeze-dried for retail and use in a range of products.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
CuisineEdit
Wakame fronds are green and have a subtly sweet flavour and satiny texture. The leaves should be cut into small pieces as they will expand during cooking.
In Japan and EuropeTemplate:Citation needed, wakame is distributed either dried or salted, and used in soups (particularly miso soup), and salads (tofu salad), or often simply as a side dish to tofu and a salad vegetable like cucumber. These dishes are typically dressed with soya sauce and vinegar, possibly rice vinegar.
Goma wakame, also known as seaweed salad, is a popular side dish at American and European sushi restaurants. Literally, it means "sesame seaweed", as sesame seeds are usually included in the recipe.
In Korea, wakame is used to make a seaweed soup called miyeok-guk, in which wakame is stir-fried in sesame oil and boiled with meat broth.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Boiled wakame.jpg
Plain boiled wakame
- Wakame chez Mika Sushi .JPG
Japanese goma wakame (seaweed and sesame salad)
- Wakame and fish.jpg
Japanese wakame with sardines
- So-gogi-miyeok-guk.jpg
Korean miyeok-guk (seaweed soup)
- Oi-miyeok-naengguk.jpg
Korean miyeok naegguk (cold seaweed soup)
- Miyeokjulgibokkeum.jpg
Korean miyeok julgibokkeum (stir-fried seaweed stems)
Health effectsEdit
.jpg){kind=link}
A study conducted at Hokkaido University found that a compound in wakame known as fucoxanthin may help burn fatty tissue in mice and rats.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Studies in mice have shown that fucoxanthin induces expression of the fat-burning protein UCP1 that accumulates in fat tissue around the internal organs. Expression of UCP1 protein was significantly increased in mice fed fucoxanthin. Wakame is also used in topical beauty treatments. See also Fucoidan.
Wakame is a rich source of eicosapentaenoic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid. At over 400 mg/(100 kcal) or almost 1 mg/kJ, it has one of the higher nutrient-to-energy ratios for this nutrient, and among the very highest for a vegetarian source.<ref name=nutritiondata>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Wakame is a low calorie food. A typical 10–20 g (1–2 tablespoon) serving of wakame contains roughly Template:Convert and provides 15–30 mg of omega-3 fatty acids. Wakame also has high levels of sodium, calcium, iodine, thiamine and niacin.
In Oriental medicine it has been used for blood purification, intestinal strength, skin, hair, reproductive organs and menstrual regularity.<ref name="Taylor 57">Template:Cite book</ref>
In Korea, miyeok-guk soup is popularly consumed by women after giving birth as sea mustard ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) contains a high content of calcium and iodine, nutrients that are important for new nursing mothers. Many women consume it during the pregnancy phase as well. It is also traditionally eaten on birthdays for this reason, a reminder of the first food that the mother has eaten and passed on to her newborn through her milk.Template:Cn
Invasive speciesEdit
Native to cold temperate coastal areas of Japan, Korea, China, and Russia,<ref name="epsteingraham-undaria"/> in recent decades it has become established in temperate regions around the world, including New Zealand, the United States, Belgium,<ref name="hillewaerthans-wakame"/> France, Great Britain, Spain, Italy, Argentina, Australia and Mexico.<ref name="torres-wakame"/><ref name="james-et-al-journal"/> It was nominated one of the 100 worst invasive species in the world.<ref name=issg/> Undaria is commonly initially introduced or recorded on artificial structures, where its r-selected growth strategy facilitates proliferation and spread to natural reef sites. Undaria populations make a significant but inconsistent contribution of food and habitat to intertidal and subtidal reefs. Undaria invasion can cause changes to native community composition at all trophic levels. As well as increasing primary productivity, it can reduce the abundance and diversity of understory algal assemblages, out-compete some native macroalgal species and affect the abundance and composition of associated epibionts and macrofauna, including gastropods, crabs, urchins and fish.<ref>Template:Cite tech report</ref> Its dense congregation and capability to latch onto any hard surface has caused it to become a major cause of damage to aquaculture apparatus, decreasing efficiency of fishing industries by clogging underwater equipment and fouling boat hulls.<ref name="wakame-smithonianenvironmentalresearchcenter">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="fao-wakame">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Eradication of wakame within a localized area usually involves getting rid of the algae underwater, often via regular inspection of aquatic environments.<ref name="nz-doc-pest-asianseaweed" /> Removing the algae underwater without disrupting native flora is accomplished by humans diving underwater and manually removing the reproductive parts of the wakame to reduce its spread.<ref name="parks_2022-08-16">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Proper and regular cleaning of underwater apparatus reduces the potential vectors for wakame spores, reducing the spread of the seaweed.<ref name="nz-doc-pest-asianseaweed" />
New ZealandEdit
In New Zealand, Undaria pinnatifida was declared as an unwanted organism in 2000 under the Biosecurity Act 1993. It was first discovered in Wellington Harbour in 1987 and probably arrived as hull fouling on shipping or fishing vessels from Asia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 2010, a single Undaria pinnatifida plant was discovered in Fiordland, which has since quickly spread from a small clump and localized itself throughout Fiordland.<ref name="nz-doc-pest-asianseaweed">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Wakame is now found around much of New Zealand, from Stewart Island to as far north as the subtropical waters of Karikari Peninsula.<ref>James K, Middleton I, Middleton C, Shears NT (2014) Discovery of Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar, 1873 in northern New Zealand indicates increased invasion threat in subtropical regions. BioInvasions Rec 3(1):21-24 http://www.reabic.net/journals/bir/2014/Issue1.aspx</ref> It spreads in two ways: naturally, through the millions of microscopic spores released by each fertile organism, and through human mediated spread, most commonly via hull fouling and with marine farming equipment.<ref>James K, Shears NT (2016) Proliferation of the invasive kelp Undaria pinnatifida at aquaculture sites promotes spread to coastal reefs. Marine Biology 163(2):1-12</ref> It is a highly successful and fertile species, which makes it a serious invader. Its capability to grow in dense congregations on any hard surface allows it to outcompete native flora and fauna for sunlight and space.<ref name="wakame-marinebiosec" /> Although the effects of wakame in New Zealand are not fully understood, with the severity varying depending on the location,<ref name="wakame-marinebiosec">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the negative impact of wakame is projected to be significant against the fishing and tourism industries in Fiordland,<ref name="nz-doc-pest-asianseaweed" /> as well as overcrowding in popular diving locations.<ref name="aucklandcouncil-seaweedcontrol">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Even though it is an invasive species, farming of wakame is permitted in already heavily infested areas of New Zealand,<ref name="seaweedfarming-nz-mpigov" /> as part of a control program established since 2010.<ref name="seaweedfarming-nz-mpigov" /><ref name="nz-doc-pest-asianseaweed" /><ref name="fao-wakame" /> In 2012, the government allowed for the farming of wakame in Wellington, Marlborough and Banks Peninsula.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Farmers of wakame must obtain permission from Biosecurity New Zealand to access approval of Sections 52 and 53 from the Biosecurity Act 1993,<ref name="seaweedfarming-nz-mpigov">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> which deal with exceptions to the possession of pests and unwanted creatures.<ref name="section52-nz">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="section53-nz">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Furthermore, any farmed wakame must only be naturally settled in pre-existing marine farms;<ref name="seaweedfarming-nz-mpigov" /> mussel farms are a commonly infested area for wakame.<ref name="seaweedfarming-nz-mpigov" /> As an exceptional case of permitted farming purely as pest control, profitting from wakame is not permitted, with exception of Ngāi Tahu, in which the iwi's revenue from catching wakame is funded for further pest control.<ref name="seaweed-au-nznoseaweed">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
United StatesEdit
The seaweed has been found in several harbors in southern California. In May 2009 it was discovered in San Francisco Bay and aggressive efforts are underway to remove it before it spreads.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project
- Wakame Seaweed Template:Webarchive at About.com
- AlgaeBase link
- Undaria pinnatifida Template:Webarchive at the FAO
- Undaria pinnatifida at the Joint Nature Conservation Committee, UK
- Global Invasive species database Template:Webarchive
- Undaria Management at the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary