Washo language

Template:Short description Template:Use mdy dates {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other Template:Infobox ethnonym Washo Template:IPAc-en<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh</ref> (or Washoe; endonym {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> is an endangered Native American language isolate spoken by the Washo on the California–Nevada border in the drainages of the Truckee and Carson Rivers, especially around Lake Tahoe. While there were only 20 elderly native speakers of Washo as of 2011,<ref name=Golla>Victor Golla (2011) California Indian Languages</ref> since 1994 there had been a small immersion school that has produced a number of moderately fluent younger speakers. The immersion school has since closed its doors and the language program now operates through the Cultural Resource Department for the Washoe Tribe. The language is still very much endangered; however, there has been a renaissance in the language revitalization movement as many of the students who attended the original immersion school have become teachers.

Ethnographic Washo speakers belonged to the Great Basin culture area and they were the only non-Numic group of that area.<ref>d'Azevedo 1986</ref> The language has borrowed from the neighboring Uto-Aztecan, Maiduan and Miwokan languages and is connected to both the Great Basin and Northern California sprachbunds.

History

In 2012, Lakeview Commons Park in South Lake Tahoe was renamed in the Washo language. "The Washoe Tribe has presented the name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (pronounced approx. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) which, in native language, means "all the people's place." It is a name the Tribe would like to gift to El Dorado County and South Lake Tahoe as a symbol of peace, prosperity and goodness."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Classification

Washo is usually considered a language isolate.<ref>Lyle Campbell. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. (1997, Oxford, pg. 125).
Marianne Mithun. The Languages of Native North America (1999, Cambridge, pg. 557)</ref> That is, it shares no demonstrated link with any other language, including its three direct neighboring languages, Northern Paiute (a Numic language of Uto-Aztecan), Maidu (Maiduan), and Sierra Miwok (Utian). It is sometimes classified as a Hokan language, but this language family is not universally accepted among specialists, nor is Washo's connection to it.<ref name="washoetribe.us">WA SHE SHU: "The Washoe People", Past and Present. The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California</ref>

The language was first described in A Grammar of the Washo Language by William H. Jacobsen, Jr., in a University of California, Berkeley, PhD dissertation and this remains the sole complete description of the language. There is no significant dialect variation. (Jacobsen's lifelong work with Washo is described at the University of Nevada Oral History Program.)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Dialects

Washo shows very little geographic variation. Jacobsen (1986:108) wrote, "When there are two variants of a feature, generally one is found in a more northerly area and the other in a more southerly one, but the lines separating the two areas for the different features do not always coincide."

Phonology

Vowels

There are six distinct vowel qualities found in the Washo language, each of which occurs long and short. The sound quality of a vowel is dependent upon their length and the consonant they precede, as well as the stress put on the vowel.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Washo vowels<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Orthography	IPA	Example
á or a á꞉ or a꞉	Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} 'one' {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sagebrush'
é or e é꞉ or e꞉	Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} 'his rib' {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'boy'
í or i í꞉ or i꞉	Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} 'my car' {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'bird'
ó or o ó꞉ or o꞉	Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} 'golden currant' {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'robin'
ú or u ú꞉ or u꞉	Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} 'owl' {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sunflower'
ɨ ɨ:	Template:IPAslink {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} (spider)
ay		lang}} (fawn)
ey		lang}} (to pay; younger brother [used in context])

Vowels marked with the acute accent ( ´ ) are pronounced with stress, such as in the Washo {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (summer).

In Washo, vowels can have either long or short length qualities; the longer quality is noted by appending a colon Template:Angle bracket to the vowel, as in the above example {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Vowels with such a mark are usually pronounced for twice the normal length. This can be seen in the difference between the words {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (shoes) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (knee). However, vowels pronounced this way may not always be followed by a colon.

Jacobsen described in detail various vowel alternations that distinguished the Washo speech communities.<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref>

Consonants

Sequences not represented by a single letter in Washo almost always tend to occur in borrowed English words, such as the nd in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (candy).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Washoe Language Lessons</ref>

Washo consonants

Orthography	IPA	Example
p	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'pus'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'my body'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'wet place'
t	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'miwak';Template:What {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'his knife'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'magpie'
k	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'cave'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'decayed tooth'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'ammunition'
ʔ	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'lake'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
pꞌ or pʼ	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'in the valley'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'his lungs'
tꞌ or tʼ	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'pinenut'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'magpie'
ć or cʼ	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'chokecherry'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'my chin'
kꞌ or kʼ	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'it's roaring'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'heron'
b	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'ammunition'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sagebrush'
d	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'sagebrush'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'bed'
z	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'a type of bird'
g	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'a type of bird'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'pinenut'
s	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'dog'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'again'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'antelope'
š	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'white fir'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'my mother's sister'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'bread'
h	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'three'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'they are standing'
m	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'conical burden basket, used for pine nuts'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'muskrat'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'pinenut'
n	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'golden currant'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'ant'
ŋ	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'child'
l	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'one'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'bread'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'pus'
w	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'bread'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'in the valley'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'lake'
y	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'again'; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'leaf'
M	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'he's hiding'
Ŋ	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'hillside sloping down'
L	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'sunflower'
W	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'he's the one who's doing it'
Y	Template:IPAslink	lang}} 'he's hunting'

In the area around Woodfords, California, the local Washo dialect substituted {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, thus, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'bird' was pronounced thithu.<ref>Caitlin Keliiaa. 2012. "Washiw Wagayay Maŋal: Reweaving the Washoe Language," University of California, Los Angeles MA thesis.</ref>

Morphology

Washo has a complex tense system.

Washo uses partial or total reduplication of verbs or nouns to indicate repetitive aspect or plural number. Washo uses both prefixation and suffixation on nouns and verbs.

Verbs

Verbal inflection is rich with a large number of tenses. Tense is usually carried by a suffix that attaches to the verb. The tense suffix may signal recent past, intermediate past, the long-ago-but-remembered past, the distant past, the intermediate future, or the distant future. For example, the suffix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} indicates that the verb describes an event that took place in the recent past, usually earlier the previous day as seen in the Washo sentence, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('the white man fed us').Template:Citation needed

Vowel Suffixes

Suffix Letter	Meaning	Used	Example
lang}}	intermediate past	earlier than the current day, but not the distant past	lang}} ('I fell over')
lang}}	long ago, remembered past	within the lifetime of the speaker	lang}} ('They used to call him that')
lang}}	distant past	before the lifetime of the speaker	lang}} ('They planted it here long ago')
lang}}	recent past	action just finished	lang}} ('I got there')
lang}}	present	actions currently in progress	lang}} ('I see you')
lang}}	near future	soon	lang}} ('I will choke him')
lang}}	intermediate future	within the day	lang}} ('It's getting green.' It will be green)
lang}}	distant future	the following day or later	lang}} ('I will see you.' 'See you later')

Nouns

Template:Expand section Possession in Washo is shown by prefixes added to the object. There are two sets of prefixes added: the first set if the object begins with a vowel and the second set if the object begins with a consonant.Template:Citation needed

Noun Prefixes

Vowel-initial Prefix	Usage	Example
lang}}	first-person possessive	lang}} ('my/our house')
lang}}	second-person possessive	lang}} ('your house')
lang}}	third-person possessive	lang}} ('his/her/its/their house')
lang}}	unidentified possessive	lang}} ('somebody's house')
Consonant-initial Prefix	Usage	Example
lang}}	first-person possessive	lang}} ('my/our mouth')
lang}}	second-person possessive	lang}} ('your mouth')
lang}}	third-person possessive (when first vowel of the object is a or o)	lang}} ('his/her/its/their mouth') {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('his/her/its/their ball')
lang}}	third person possessive (when first vowel of the object is e, i, ɨ, or u')	lang}} ('his/her/its/their belt') {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('his/her/its/their net') {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('his/her/its/their grandmother's sister') {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('his/her/its/their pet')
	unidentified possessive	lang}} ('somebody's mouth')

See also

• Washoe tribe
• Native American languages

Sources

• Template:Cite encyclopedia
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}

• Template:Cite journal

Further reading

• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite journal

External links

• University of Chicago Washo Revitalization Project
  • Washo Online Lexicon
• Template:Usurped
• Washo basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
• Washo language overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
• OLAC resources in and about the Washo language