Editing Funj Sultanate (section)

==History==
===Origins===
[[Nubia#Christian Nubia|Christian Nubia]], represented by the two [[Middle Ages|medieval]] kingdoms of [[Makuria]] and [[Alodia]], began to decline from the 12th century.{{sfn|Grajetzki|2009|p=117}} By 1365 Makuria had virtually collapsed and was reduced to a [[rump state]] restricted to [[Lower Nubia]], until finally disappearing {{circa}} 150 years later.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=143–146}} The fate of Alodia is less clear.{{sfn|Grajetzki|2009|p=117}} It has been suggested that it had collapsed as early as the 12th century or shortly after, as archaeology suggests that in this period, [[Soba (city)|Soba]] ceased to be used as its capital.{{sfn|Grajetzki|2009|p=123}} By the 13th century central Sudan seemed to have disintegrated into various petty states.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=19}} Between the 14th and 15th centuries Sudan was overrun by [[Bedouin]] tribes.{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=176}} In the 15th century one of these Bedouins, whom [[Sudan]]ese traditions refer to as [[Abdallabi tribe|Abdallah Jammah]], is recorded to have created a tribal federation and to have subsequently destroyed what was left of Alodia. In the early 16th century Abdallah's federation came under attack from an invader to the south, the [[Funj people|Funj]].{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|pp=140–141}}

The ethnic affiliation of the Funj is still disputed. The first and second of the three most prominent theories suggest that they were either Nubians or Shilluk, while, according to the third theory, the Funj were not an ethnic group, but a social class.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

In the 14th century a Muslim Funj trader named al-Hajj Faraj al-Funi was involved in the [[Red Sea]] trade.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=22}} According to oral traditions the [[Dinka people|Dinka]], who migrated upstream the White and Blue Nile since the 13th-century disintegration of Alodia, came in conflict with the Funj, who the Dinka defeated.{{sfn|Beswick|2004|pp=32–33}} In the late 15th/early 16th century the [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]] arrived at the junction of the [[Sobat River|Sobat]] and the White Nile, where they encountered a sedentary people Shilluk traditions refer to as ''Apfuny'', ''Obwongo'' and/or ''Dongo'', a people now equated with the Funj. Said to be more sophisticated than the Shilluk, they were defeated in a series of brutal wars{{sfn|Beswick|2014|pp=108–110}} and either assimilated or pushed north.{{sfn|Beswick|2004|p=33}} Anti-Funj propaganda from the later period of the kingdom referred to the Funj as "pagans from the White Nile" and "barbarians" who had originated from the "primitive southern swamps".{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=210}}

In 1504 the Funj defeated Abdallah Jammah and founded the Funj Sultanate.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=25–26}}

===Ottoman threat and revolt of Ajib===
[[File:A lady of Sennar.jpg|thumb|left|90px|A young woman of Sennar]]
In 1523 the kingdom was visited by [[Judaism|Jewish]] traveller [[David Reubeni]], who disguised himself as a [[Sharif]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=23}} Sultan [[Amara Dunqas]], Reubeni wrote, was continuously travelling through his kingdom. He, who "ruled over black people and white"{{sfn|Crawford|1951|p=136}} between the region south of the Nile confluence to as far north as Dongola,{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=23}} owned large herds of various types of animals and commanded many captains on horseback.{{sfn|Crawford|1951|p=136}} Two years later, [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] admiral [[Selman Reis]] mentioned Amara Dunqas and his kingdom, calling it weak and easily conquerable. He also stated that Amara paid an annual tribute of 9,000 camels to the [[Ethiopian Empire]].{{sfn|Peacock|2012|p=91}} One year later the Ottomans occupied [[Sawakin]],{{sfn|Peacock|2012|p=98}} which beforehand was associated with Sennar.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=26}} It seems that to counter the Ottoman expansion in the Red Sea region, the Funj engaged in an alliance with Ethiopia. Besides camels the Funj are known to have exported horses to Ethiopia, which were then used in war against the [[Adal Sultanate]].{{sfn|Peacock|2012|pp=98–101}} The borders of Funj were raided by [[Ahmed Gurey]] during the war taking many slaves before stopping near the Taka mountain range near modern-day [[Kassala]]. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Richard |title=First Footsteps in East Africa |page=179}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pal Ruhela |first1=Satya |title=Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times |last2=Farah Aidid |first2=Mohammed |publisher=Vikas Pub. House |year=1994 |isbn=9780706980042}}</ref>

Before the Ottomans gained a foothold in Ethiopia, in 1555, [[Özdemir Pasha]] was appointed [[Beylerbey]] of the (yet to be conquered) [[Habesh Eyalet]]. He attempted to march upstream along the Nile to conquer the Funj, but his troops revolted when they approached the [[Cataracts of the Nile|first cataract of the Nile]].{{sfn|Ménage|1988|pp=143–144}} Until 1570, however, the Ottomans had established themselves in [[Qasr Ibrim]] in [[Lower Nubia]], most likely a preemptive move to secure [[Upper Egypt]] from Funj aggression.{{sfn|Ménage|1988|pp=145–146}} Fourteen years later they had pushed as far south as the third cataract of the Nile and subsequently attempted to conquer [[Dongola]], but, in 1585, were crushed by the Funj at the [[battle of Hannik]].{{sfn|Peacock|2012|pp=96–97}} Afterwards, the battlefield, which was located just south of the third Nile cataract, would mark the border between the two kingdoms.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=35}} In the late 16th century the Funj pushed towards the Habesh Eyalet, conquering north-western [[Eritrea]].{{sfn|Smidt|p=665|2010}} Failing to make progress against both the Funj Sultanate and Ethiopia, the Ottomans abandoned their policy of expansion.{{sfn|Peacock|2012|p=97}} Thus, from the 1590s onwards, the Ottoman threat vanished, rendering the Funj-Ethiopian alliance unnecessary, and relations between the two states were about to turn into open hostility.{{sfn|Peacock|2012|pp=101–102}} As late as 1597, however, the relations were still described as friendly, with trade flourishing.{{sfn|Aregay|Selassie|1971|p=64}}

In the meantime, the rule of sultan [[Dakin of Sennar|Dakin]] (1568–1585) saw the rise of [[Ajib the Great|Ajib]], a minor king of northern Nubia. When Dakin returned from a failed campaign in the Ethiopian–Sudanese borderlands Ajib had acquired enough power to demand and receive greater political autonomy.<!--1580 Eastern Desert--> A few years later he forced sultan [[Tayyib of Sennar|Tayyib]] to marry his daughter, effectively making Tayyib and his offspring and successor, [[Unsa I of Sennar|Unsa]], his vassals. Unsa was eventually deposed in 1603/1604 by [[Abd al-Qadir II]], triggering Ajib to invade the Funj heartland. His armies pushed the Funj king to the south-east. Thus, Ajib effectively ruled over an empire reaching from Dongola to Ethiopia. Abd el-Qadir II, eventually deposed in December 1606, fled to Ethiopia and submitted to emperor [[Susenyos]],{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=36–38}} providing Susenyos with an opportunity to intervene in the sultanate's affairs.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=60}} However, the new Funj sultan, [[Adlan I]], managed to turn the tide of war against Ajib,{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=38}} eventually killing him in 1611 or 1612.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=36}} While chasing the remnants of Ajib's army to the north, Adlan II himself was deposed and succeeded by a son of the former sultan Abd al-Qadir II, [[Badi I]]. He issued a peace treaty with the sons of Ajib, agreeing to factually split the Funj state. The successors of Ajib, the [[Abdallabi tribe|Abdallab]], would receive everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Nile, which they would rule as vassal kings of Sennar. Therefore, the Funj lost direct control over much of their kingdom.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=38–40}}

In 1618-1619 [[Bahr Negash]] Gebre Mariam, ruler of the Medri Bahri, helped [[Susenyos I|Emperor Susneyos]] in a military campaign against the Sennar Sultanate. Emperor Susneyos sent Bahr Gebre to attack Mandara whose queen, Fatima, controlled a strategic caravan road from [[Suakin]]. The [[Bahr Negash]] was successful in capturing Queen Fatima, which he sent back to Emperor Susenyos' palace in [[Danqaz]] ([[Gorgora]]) and she renewed submission to the [[Ethiopian Empire]].<ref name=":1">James Bruce, ''[[iarchive:travelstodiscov02bruc|Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile]]'', vol. 2.</ref>

===17th century peak===
[[File:Court of Badi of Sennar (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Contemporary albeit romanticizing depiction of Sultan Badi III receiving Theodor Krump. Over 100 years later an eyewitness would describe Badi VII, the last Funj king, as wearing a robe and a tunic and horned cap of rich Indian fabric. He rode a horse with a harness decorated with gold and silver and a plume made of [[ostrich]] feathers.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=361}}]]
The submission of Abd al-Qadir II to the Ethiopian emperor and the possibility of a consequential invasion remained a problem for the Funj sultans. Adlan I had apparently been too weak to do something against this situation, but Badi I was able to take matters into his own hands.{{sfn|Aregay|Selassie|1971|p=65}} A rich present by Susenyos, which he perhaps sent in the belief that the successors of Abd al-Qadir II would honour the submission of the latter, was rudely answered with two lame horses and first raids of Ethiopian posts.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=60}} Susenyos, occupied elsewhere, would not respond to that act of aggression until 1617 when he raided several Funj provinces. This mutual raiding finally escalated into a full-fledged [[First Funj-Ethiopian war|war]] in 1618 and 1619, resulting in the devastation of many of the Funj eastern provinces.{{sfn|Aregay|Selassie|1971|pp=65–66}} A pitched battle was also fought, claimed by the Ethiopian sources to have been a victory, albeit this is posed doubtful by the fact that the Ethiopian troops retreated immediately afterwards. After the war, the two countries remained at peace for over a century.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=61}}

The Funj sultan who ruled during the war, [[Rabat I]], was the first in a series of three monarchs under whom the sultanate entered a period of prosperity, expansion and increased contacts with the outside world, but was also confronted with several new problems.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=57}}

In the 17th century, the Shilluk and Sennar were forced into an uneasy alliance to combat the growing might of the [[Dinka people|Dinka]]. After the alliance had run its cause, in 1650, Sultan [[Badi II]] occupied the northern half of the [[Shilluk Kingdom]].{{sfn|Beswick|2014|p=115}} Under his rule the Funj defeated the [[Kingdom of Taqali]] to the west and made its ruler his vassal.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

===Decline===
{{Contradicts other|Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)|here|End date|section|date=June 2021}}
{{See also|Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)#Submission of Sennar}}
[[File:Sudanese woman ("Book of Women").jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|A Sudanese woman in an Ottoman miniature from the late 18th century]]
Sennar was at its peak at the end of the 17th century, but during the 18th century, it began to decline as the power of the monarchy was eroded. The greatest challenge to the authority of the king were the merchant funded [[Ulama]] who insisted it was rightfully their duty to mete out justice.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

In about 1718 the previous dynasty, the [[Unsab dynasty|Unsab]], was overthrown in a coup and replaced by [[Nul of Sennar|Nul]], who, although related to the previous Sultan, effectively founded a dynasty on his own.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=213}} <!--Nol Arabizer Spaulding 1985 p=213}}-->

In 1741 and 1743 the young Ethiopian emperor [[Iyasu II]] conducted raids westwards, attempting to acquire quick military fame. In March 1744 he assembled an army of 30,000–100,000 men for a new expedition, which was initially intended as yet another raid, but soon turned into a war of conquest.{{sfn|Kropp|1996|pp=116–118, note 21}} On the banks of the [[Dinder River|Dinder river]] the two states fought a [[Battle of the Dindar River|pitched battle]], which went in favour of Sennar.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=91}} Traveller [[James Bruce]] noted that Iyasu II, plundered his way back to Ethiopia, allowing him to display his campaign as a success.{{sfn|Kropp|1996|p=125}} Meanwhile, Badi IV's repulsion of the Ethiopian invasion made him a national hero.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=213}} Hostilities between the two states continued until the end of Iyasu II's reign in 1755, tensions caused by this war were still recorded in 1773.{{sfn|Aregay|Selassie|1971|p=68}} Trade, however, soon resumed after the conflict, although on reduced scale.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|pp=371–372}}
[[File:Sennar palace (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|At the time of the Egyptian invasion in 1821 the palace of Sennar was already in ruins.]]

It has been suggested that it was Badi's victory over the Ethiopians that strengthened his power;{{sfn|McHugh|1994|p=53}} in 1743/1744 he is known to have had his vizier executed and to have taken the reins.{{sfn|McHugh|1994|p=54}} He attempted to create a new power base by purging the previous ruling clan, stripping the nobility of their land and instead empowering clients from the western and southern periphery of his realm. One of these clients was [[Muhammad Abu Likaylik]], a [[Hamaj]] (a generic Sudannese term applied to the pre-Funj, non-Arabic or semi-Arabized people of the Gezira and Ethiopian-Sudanese borderlands){{sfn|Etefa|2006|pp=17–18}} from east of Fazughli who was granted land immediately south of Sennar in 1747/1748.{{sfn|McHugh|1994|pp=53–54}} He was a cavalry commander tasked to pacify [[Kordofan]], which had become a battlefield between the Funj and the Musabb’at, refugees from the [[Sultanate of Darfur]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=93}} The Fur had the upper hand until 1755, when Abu Likayik finally managed to overrun Kordofan and turn it into his new powerbase.{{sfn|Spaulding|1998|pp=53–54}} In the meantime, Sultan Badi grew increasingly unpopular due to his repressive measures. Eventually, Abu Likayik was convinced by disaffected Funj noblemen, many of them residing in Kordofan, to march on the capital. In 1760/1761 he reached Alays at the White Nile, where a council was held in which Badi was formally deposed.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=94}} Afterwards, he besieged Sennar, which he entered on 27 March 1762.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=313}} Badi fled to Ethiopia but was murdered in 1763.{{sfn|Kropp|1996|p=128}} Thus began the [[Hamaj Regency]], where the Funj monarchs became puppets of the Hamaj.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=94–95}}

[[File:Le roi de Sennâr donnant audience à ses ministres.jpg|left|thumb|A Funj king of Sennar and his ministers as represented in a book by [[Félix Mengin]], 1823]]

Abu Likayik installed another member of the royal family as his puppet sultan and ruled as regent. This began a long conflict between the Funj sultans attempting to reassert their independence and authority and the Hamaj regents attempting to maintain control of the true power of the state. These internal divisions greatly weakened the state and in the late 18th century Mek [[Adlan II]], son of Mek Taifara, took power during a turbulent time at which a Turkish presence was being established in the Funj kingdom. The Turkish ruler, [[Al-Tahir Agha]], married Khadeeja, daughter of Mek Adlan II. This paved the way for the assimilation of the Funj into the Ottoman Empire.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

[[File:Sennar in 1821.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Sennar in 1821]]

The later 18th century saw a rapid disintegration of the Funj state. In 1785/1786 the Fur Sultanate conquered Kordofan which it managed to hold until the Egyptian invasion of 1821.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|pp=391–392}} In the second half of the 18th century Sennar lost the Tigre in what is now Eritrea to the rising ''naib'' ("deputy") of [[Massawa]],{{sfn|Miran|2010|p=47}} while after 1791 Taka around the Sudanese [[Mareb River]] made itself independent.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=383}} The Shukriya became the new dominant power in the Butana.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} The long isolated province of Dongola finally fell to the Shaiqiya in around 1782, who installed a loyal puppet dynasty.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=101}}{{sfn|Beška|2020|p=320}} After 1802, the authority of the sultanate was limited to the Gezira for good.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=382}}<!--p. 371-379 attempt to restore control in the north, never again riding north of nile confluence Ja'aliyin p. 405-406 Darfur 1802 White Nile Sennar excessively plundered in early 1804 p. 426-267 --> In the early years of the 19th century the kingdom was plagued by excessive civil wars. Regent Muhammad Adlan, who rose to power in 1808 and whose father had been assassinated by a warlord of that period, was able to put an end to these wars and managed to stabilize the kingdom for another 13 years.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|pp=440–442}}

[[File:Préliminaires cérémonieux de l'entrevue d'un chef nègre avec un roi sennarien.png|thumb|upright=1.2|After the conquest of Sennar, the Funj became Egyptian vassal kings ruling the mountains of the central Gezira. On this depiction from the mid-19th century, a Funj king (on horseback) meets a local chief]]

In 1820, [[Ismail bin Muhammad Ali]], the general and son of the [[Ottoman Empire|nominally Ottoman]] vassal [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], began the conquest of Sudan. Realizing that the Turks were about to conquer his domain, Muhammad Adlan prepared to resist and ordered to muster the army at the Nile confluence, but he fell to a plot near Sennar in early 1821. One of the murderers, a man named Daf'Allah, rode back to the capital to prepare Sultan [[Badi VII]]'s submission ceremony to the Turks.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|pp=449–451}} The Turks reached the Nile confluence in May 1821. Afterwards, they travelled upstream the Blue Nile until reaching Sennar.{{sfn|McGregor|2006|p=73}} They were disappointed to learn that Sennar, once enjoying a reputation of wealth and splendour, was now reduced to a heap of ruins.{{sfn|Oliver|Atmore|2001|p=106}} On 14 June they received the official submission of Badi VII.<ref name="Moorehead">Alan Moorehead, ''The Blue Nile'', revised edition (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), p. 215</ref>