Editing Substrate in Romanian (section)

==Lexical items==

The study of the substrate involves [[Comparative linguistics|comparative methods]] applied to:<ref name="Brâncuș 2005 44"/>
#[[Albanian language|Albanian]] and its reconstructed ancient precursor – [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] – an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the [[Albanoid]] branch, belonging to the [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan group]] of antiquity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Victor A.|editor-last1=Aminian Jazi|editor-first1=Ioana|editor-last2=Kahl|editor-first2=Thede|chapter=The importance of Aromanian for the study of Balkan language contact in the context of Balkan-Caucasian parallels|title=Ethno-Cultural Diversity in the Balkans and the Caucasus|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|year=2023|pages=345–360|doi=10.2307/jj.3508401.16|jstor=jj.3508401.16}}</ref><ref name=fine10-11>Fine, JA. ''The Early medieval Balkans''. University of Michigan Press, 1991. pp.&nbsp;10–11. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YbS9QmwDC58C Google Books]</ref> [[Albanian language|Albanian]] varieties are today spoken by approximately 6 million people in the Balkans, primarily in [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Greece]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Indo-European Languages|last=Rusakov|first=Alexander|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=9781317391531|editor1-last=Kapović|editor1-first=Mate|chapter=Albanian|editor2-last=Giacalone Ramat|editor2-first=Anna|editor3-last=Ramat|editor3-first=Paolo|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> Albanian, especially the [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk dialect]], also represents one of the core languages of the [[Balkan sprachbund|Balkan Sprachbund]].<ref name="Schumacher2020">{{cite book|first=Stefan|last=Schumacher|title=Perfects in Indo-European Languages and Beyond|date=2020|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-90-272-6090-1|language=en|chapter=The perfect system of Old Albanian (Geg variety)|editor1=Robert Crellin|editor2=Thomas Jügel|volume=352|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zz6DwAAQBAJ}}</ref>
# [[Classification of Thracian|Thraco-Dacian]] or [[Thracian language|Thracian]], a language that although almost unattested has left traces in toponomy and inscriptions.<ref>Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DlrPPUCQmk4C ''The Grammar of Romanian''], Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-964492-6</ref>
# [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], if none of the other languages yielded any results.<ref name="Brâncuș 2005 44"/>

===Comparative methods applied to Albanian===

In general, words assumed to belong to substratum can be placed into two categories:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosetti |first=Alexandru |author-link=Alexandru Rosetti |chapter=La situation du romain parmi les langues balkaniques|title=Linguistica |pages=216-225 [222] |location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |date=1965 |doi=10.1515/9783111349039-037 |lang=FR}}</ref><ref name="Sala 2012 84">{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page=84 }}</ref>

those related to [[nature |nature and natural world]]
* [[terrain]]: {{lang|ro|ciucă}}, {{lang|ro|groapă}}, {{lang|ro|mal}}, {{lang|ro|măgură}}, {{lang|ro|noian}}; 
* [[Body of water|bodies of water]]: {{lang|ro|bâlc}}, {{lang|ro|pârâu}};
* [[flora]]: {{lang|ro|brusture}}, {{lang|ro|bung(et)}}, {{lang|ro|ciump}}, {{lang|ro|coacăză}}, {{lang|ro|copac}}, {{lang|ro|curpen}}, {{lang|ro|druete}}, {{lang|ro|leurdă}}, {{lang|ro|ghimpe}}, {{lang|ro|mazăre}}, {{lang|ro|mărar}}, {{lang|ro|mugure}}, {{lang|ro|sâmbure}}, {{lang|ro|spânz}}, {{lang|ro|strugure}}, {{lang|ro|ţeapă}};
* [[fauna]]: {{lang|ro|[[balaur]]}}, {{lang|ro|bală}}, {{lang|ro|baligă}}, {{lang|ro|barză}}, {{lang|ro|brad}}, {{lang|ro|călbează}}, {{lang|ro|căpușă}}, {{lang|ro|cioară}}, {{lang|ro|cioc}}, {{lang|ro|ciut}}, {{lang|ro|ghionoaie}}, {{lang|ro|măgar}}, {{lang|ro|mânz(at)}}, {{lang|ro|murg}}, {{lang|ro|mușcoi}}, {{lang|ro|năpârcă}}, {{lang|ro|pupăză}}, {{lang|ro|raţă}}, {{lang|ro|strepede}}, {{lang|ro|şopârlă}}, {{lang|ro|ştiră}}, {{lang|ro|ţap}}, {{lang|ro|viezure}}, {{lang|ro|vizuină}};
and those used in [[Pastoralism|pastoral life]] for:
* [[food]]: {{lang|ro|abur}}, {{lang|ro|brânză}}, {{lang|ro|fărâmă}}, {{lang|ro|grunz}}, {{lang|ro|sarbăd}}, {{lang|ro|scrum}}, {{lang|ro|urdă}}, {{lang|ro|zară}};
* [[clothing]]: {{lang|ro|bască}}, {{lang|ro|brâu}}, {{lang|ro|căciulă}}, {{lang|ro|sarică}};
* [[housing]]: {{lang|ro|argea}}, {{lang|ro|cătun}}, {{lang|ro|gard}};
* [[human body|body]] (some initially used for livestock): {{lang|ro|buză}}, {{lang|ro|ceafă}}, {{lang|ro|ciuf}}, {{lang|ro|grumaz}}, {{lang|ro|guşă}}, {{lang|ro|rânză}};
* [[agriculture|related activities]]: {{lang|ro|baci}}, {{lang|ro|bâr}}, {{lang|ro|buc}}, {{lang|ro|grapă}}, {{lang|ro|gresie}}, {{lang|ro|lete}}, {{lang|ro|strungă}}, {{lang|ro|ţarc}}, {{lang|ro|zgardă}}.

Other words from substratum are: {{lang|ro|bucur(ie)}}, {{lang|ro|ciupi}}, {{lang|ro|copil}}, {{lang|ro|cursă}}, {{lang|ro|fluier}}, {{lang|ro|droaie}}, {{lang|ro|gata}}, {{lang|ro|ghiuj}}, {{lang|ro|jumătate}}, {{lang|ro|mare}} (adj.), {{lang|ro|moş}}, {{lang|ro|scăpăra}}.
 
Words possibly of substratum but not generally agreed among linguists are: {{lang|ro|arichiță}}, {{lang|ro|băiat}}, {{lang|ro|băl}}, {{lang|ro|brâncă}}, {{lang|ro|borţ}}, {{lang|ro|bulz}}, {{lang|ro|burduf}}, {{lang|ro|burtă}}, {{lang|ro|codru}}, {{lang|ro|Crăciun}}, {{lang|ro|creţ}}, {{lang|ro|cruţa}}, {{lang|ro|curma}}, {{lang|ro|daltă}}, {{lang|ro|dărâma}}, {{lang|ro|fluture}}, {{lang|ro|lai}}, {{lang|ro|mătură}}, {{lang|ro|mire}}, {{lang|ro|negură}}, {{lang|ro|păstaie}}, {{lang|ro|scorbură}}, {{lang|ro|spuză}}, {{lang|ro|stăpân}}, {{lang|ro|sterp}}, {{lang|ro|stână}}, {{lang|ro|traistă}}.<ref name="Sala 2012 84"/>

===Comparative methods applied to Thraco-Dacian and/or other Indo-European languages===

The comparative method can be extended to other languages of the Indo-European family, including ones from which Romanian could not have borrowed directly or indirectly, in order to reconstruct Thraco-Dacian substratum words. This yields results with varying degrees of probability. Between 80 and 100 words belong to this category.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page=83 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sala |first=Marius |chapter=Contact and Borrowing |title=The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages |editor1=Martin Maiden |editor2=John Charles Smith |editor3=Adam Ledgeway |pages=187–236 [201] |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2013 |doi=10.1017/cho9781139019996.007}}</ref>

Substratum words like ''mal'' (1. shore, bank; 2. ravine, reg. a raised portion of land smaller than a hill and with abrupt sides) have almost identical correspondents in Albanian ''mal'' (mountain), but they can also be related to toponyms like Dacia Maluensis later renamed by Romans to Dacia Ripensis (''rīpa'' - meaning bank, shore -  has been inherited in Romanian as ''râpă'' - the abrupt side of a hill).<ref name="Brâncuș 2005 45">{{Cite book|last=Brâncuș |first=Grigore |trans-title=Introduction to the History of Romanian Language |title=Introducere în istoria limbii române] |publisher=Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine |year=2005 |isbn=973-725-219-5  |page=45 }}</ref>

All river names over 500&nbsp;km and half of those between 200 and 500&nbsp;km derive from pre-[[Latin]] substratum, according to linguist and philologist Oliviu Felecan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Felecan |first1=Oliviu |last2=Felecan |first2=Nicolae |title=Etymological strata reflected in Romanian hydronymy |journal=Quaderns de Filología. Estudis Lingüístics |volume=20 |issue=Toponímia Románica |pages=251–269 |year=2015 |issn=1135-416X |doi=10.7203/qfilologia.20.7521 |doi-access=free |hdl=10550/49693 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, linguist [[Grigore Brâncuș]] states that almost the entire major hydronymy has been transmitted from Dacian to Romanian.<ref name="Brâncuș 2005 45"/> Other linguists have pointed out that the present Romanian forms of these hydronyms indicate that they were borrowed from [[Slavs]] or [[Hungarians]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Petrovici |first=Emil |title=Istoria și geografia României |quote=There is not a single river name of Romanian origin, the old river names have been transmitted into Romanian through Slavic transmission.}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Nandris |first=Grigore |author-link=Grigore Nandriș |title=The Development and Structure of Rumanian |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=30 |issue=74 |pages=7–39 |date=December 1951}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Makkai |first=László |url= |title=History of Transylvania Volume I. From the Beginnings to 1606 - III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526) - 1. Transylvania'a Indigenous Population at the Time of the Hungarian Conquest |publisher=Columbia University Press, (The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences) |year=2001 |isbn=0-88033-479-7 |location=New York |language=English |chapter=Toponymy and Chronology |chapter-url=http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/61.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miskolczy |first=Ambrus |date=2018 |title=A román nép születése – avagy egy rejtély filológiája |url=http://acta.bibl.u-szeged.hu/57282/1/aetas_2018_004_134-166.pdf |journal=Aetas - Történettudományi Folyóirat |language=Hungarian |publisher=Nemzeti Kulturális Alap, Szegedi Tudományegyetem Bölcsészettudományi Kara, Szegedért Alapítvány, Szeged Megyei Jogú Város Önkormányzata, Nemzeti Együttműködési Alap |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=146}}</ref>

[[Image:Rivers Romania.png|thumb|350px|Major rivers of Romania. According to one theory, Romanian (a [[Romance language]]) has preserved the substrate form of their names instead of the Latin form. Other linguist say that the Romanian form of the names of these rivers indicate, that they are loanwords in Romanian mainly from [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]].]]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Romanian river names with the etymons found in Indo-European languages as per Felecan&Felecan.
|-
! Name in Romanian !! Proposed etymon !! Language of the etymon
|-
| [[Danube|Dunăre]] || Donaris || [[Thracian language|Thracian]]
|-
| [[Mureș (river)|Mureș]] || morisjo || [[Dacian language|Dacian]]
|-
| [[Olt (river)|Olt]] || *ol- || rowspan="3" | [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
|-
| [[Prut]] || *pltus 
|-
| [[Siret (river)|Siret]] || *ser-  
|-
| [[Tisza|Tisa]] || Tibisio || [[Dacian language|Dacian]]
|-
| [[Argeș (river)|Argeș]] || *arg- || rowspan="3" | [[Thracian language|Thracian]]
|-
| [[Buzău (river)|Buzău]] || *bhuǧ- 
|-
| [[Crișul Alb|Crișul]] || kres- 
|-
| [[Jiu (river)|Jiu]] || Gilpil  || [[Dacian language|Dacian]]
|-
| [[Someș]] || çam- || [[Sanskrit]]
|-
| [[Timiș (river)|Timiș]] || *ti- || [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
|-
| [[Ampoi]] || Ampee || [[Daco-Moesian|Daco-moesian]]
|-
| [[Bârzava (Timiș)|Bârzava]] || berzava || [[Thracian language|Thracian]]
|-
| [[Gilort]] || sil-arta || [[Dacian language|Dacian]]
|-
| Ibru || *eybhro || rowspan="3" | [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
|-
| [[Vedea]] || *ued- 
|-
| [[Nera (Danube)|Nera]] || *ner- 
|-
| [[Năruja (river)|Năruia]] || *ner- || [[Dacian language|Dacian]]
|-
| [[Săsar]] || *ser- || rowspan="2" | [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
|-
| [[Strei]] || *s(e)reu 
|}