Editing Sultanate of Rum (section)

==History==
{{Further|Timeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum}}

===Establishment===
Since the 1030s, migratory Turkish groups in search of pastureland had penetrated Byzantine borders into Anatolia.<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 12.</ref> In the 1070s, after the [[battle of Manzikert]], the Seljuk commander [[Suleiman ibn Qutulmish]], a distant cousin of [[Alp Arslan]] and a former contender for the throne of the [[Seljuk Empire]], came to power in western [[Anatolia]]. Between 1075 and 1081, he gained control of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] cities of Nicaea (present-day [[İznik]]) and briefly also [[Nicomedia]] (present-day [[İzmit]]). Around two years later, he established a principality that, while initially a Byzantine [[vassal state]], became increasingly independent after six to ten years.<ref>Sicker, Martin, ''The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna'', (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 63–64.</ref><ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 72.</ref> Nevertheless, it seems that Suleiman was tasked by Byzantine emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] in 1085 to reconquer [[Antioch]] and the former travelled there on a secret route, presumably guided by the Byzantines.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=51}}

Suleiman tried, unsuccessfully, to conquer [[Aleppo]] in 1086, and died in the [[Battle of Ain Salm]], either fighting his enemies or by suicide.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=52}} In the aftermath, Suleiman's son [[Kilij Arslan I]] was imprisoned and a general of his, [[Abu'l-Qasim (Seljuk governor of Nicaea)|Abu'l-Qasim]], took power in Nicaea.<ref>Sicker, Martin, ''The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna '', (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 65.</ref> Following the death of sultan [[Malik-Shah I|Malik Shah]] in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and established himself in his father's territories between 1092 and 1094, possibly with the approval of Malik Shah's son and successor [[Berkyaruq]].{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|pp=68–69}}

===Crusades===
Kilij Arslan, although victorious against the [[People's Crusade]] of 1096, was defeated by soldiers of the [[First Crusade]] and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with its capital in [[Konya]]. He defeated three Crusade contingents in the [[Crusade of 1101]]. In 1107, he ventured east and captured [[Mosul]] but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son, [[Muhammad I Tapar|Mehmed Tapar]]. He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, [[Malik Shah (Rûm)|Malik Shah]] (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, [[Mesud I]], took the city with the help of the [[Danishmends]].{{Cn|date=January 2021}} Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia. 

[[File:Seljuk bas-relief of two Turkic warrior. Sultanate of Rum, Konya citadel, 12th century, Turkey.jpg|thumb|Bas-relief of two Sultanate of Rum warriors. [[Konya citadel]], 12-13th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Konstam |first1=Angus |title=Historical atlas of the Crusades |date=2002 |publisher=New York : Checkmark Books |isbn=978-0-8160-4919-6 |page=40 |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000kons_y1p6/page/40/mode/2up?view=theater |quote=A Seljuk bas-relief of two Turkish warriors}}</ref>]]
The [[Second Crusade]] was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus, which ended in their retreat. In the end, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century.

[[File:Sultan Kilij Arslan II enthroned in a tile from Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156-92.jpg|thumb|left|Sultan [[Kilij Arslan II]] enthroned, [[Alaeddin Kiosk|Alaeddin Palace]], [[Konya]], 1156–1192.<ref name="AAT">{{cite book |title=The Art and architecture of Turkey |date=1980 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0273-9 |page=178 [https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/178/mode/2up?q=%22119%22&view=theater note on plate 119], [https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/186/mode/2up?q=%22119%22&view=theater Plate 119] |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/178/mode/2up?q=%22119%22&view=theater |quote=Page 178 Plate 119: "Throne scene on a star-shaped tile, Iranian-Seljuk minai technique, Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156—92 ('''Kilicarslan II''' period), D. 8.5 cm. The sultan, sitting cross-legged on his throne, is holding a pomegranate in one hand; there are tiraz bands on his arms and two guards next to him. Karatay Madrasah Museum, Konya.}}</ref>]]
Mesud's son, [[Kilij Arslan II]], is the first known Seljuk ruler who is known to have used the title of [[sultan]]<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 73.</ref> and captured the remaining territories around [[Sivas]] and [[Malatya]] from the last of the Danishmends. At the [[Battle of Myriokephalon]] in 1176, Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by [[Manuel I Komnenos]]. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the [[Holy Roman Empire]]'s forces of the [[Third Crusade]], the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.<ref name="Turan244-245">''Anatolia in the period of the Seljuks and the "beyliks"'', Osman Turan, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', Vol. 1A, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis, (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 244–245.</ref> During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with [[Kaykhusraw I]] fighting to retain control and losing to his brother [[Suleiman II (Rûm)|Suleiman II]] in 1196.<ref name="Turan244-245" /><ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 29.</ref>

Following Kilij Arslan II's death, the sultanate was divided amongst his sons.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Elbistan was given to [[Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II]], but when Erzurum was taken from the Saltukids at the start of the thirteenth century, he was installed there.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} Tughril governed Erzurum from 1192 to 1221.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} During 1211–1212, he broke free from the Seljuk state.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} In 1230, [[Jahan Shah bin Tughril]] who was allied to the Khwarazmshah Jalal al-Din, lost the [[Battle of Yassıçemen]], allowing for Erzurum to be annexed by the Seljuk sultanate.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}}

[[File:Anatolia1200.png|thumb|upright=1|The Sultanate of Rûm and surrounding states, c.&nbsp;1200]]
[[Suleiman II (Rûm)|Suleiman II]] rallied his vassal [[emir]]s and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000–400,000 and encamped in the [[Basiani]] valley. [[Tamar of Georgia]] quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, [[David Soslan]]. Georgian troops under [[David Soslan]] made a sudden advance into [[Battle of Basian|Basiani]] and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In a pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians.<ref name="Mikaberidze184">Alexander Mikaberidze, ''Historical Dictionary of Georgia'', (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 184.</ref>{{bsn|date=November 2021}}

Suleiman II died in 1204<ref name="Cahen42">Claude Cahen, ''The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth'', transl. & ed. P.M. Holt, (Pearson Education Limited, 2001), 42.</ref> and was succeeded by his son [[Kilij Arslan III]], whose reign was unpopular.<ref name="Cahen42" /> Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign.<ref name="Cahen42" /> Under his rule and those of his two successors, [[Kaykaus I]] and [[Kayqubad I]], Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of [[Antalya|Attalia]] (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]]{{sfn|Tricht|2011|p=355}} and made the [[Empire of Trebizond]] his vassal in 1214.{{sfn|Ring|Watson|Schellinger|1995|p=651}} He also subjugated [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenia]] but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo, acquired from [[al-Kamil]]. [[Kayqubad I|Kayqubad]] continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the [[Black Sea]] to [[Crimea]].<ref>A.C.S. Peacock, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25188622 "The Saliūq Campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the Early Reign of'Alā' al-Dīn Kayqubād"], ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Vol. 16 (2006), pp. 133–149.</ref> In the east he defeated the [[Mengujekids]] and began to put pressure on the [[Artuqids]].{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

===Mongol conquest===
{{main|Mongol conquest of Anatolia}}
[[File:Seljuks of Anatolia, horseman relief, Konya Palace, 13th century.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Frieze with Sultanate of Rum horseman, [[Seljuk palace of Konya|Konya Palace]], 1156-1192.<ref>{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |pages=114, 392}}</ref>]]
[[Kaykhusraw II]] (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around [[Diyarbakır]], but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named [[Baba Ishak]]. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding [[Mongols]]. The forces of the [[Mongol Empire]] took [[Erzurum]] in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by [[Baiju Noyan|Baiju]] in the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] (a mountain between the cities of [[Sivas Province|Sivas]] and [[Erzincan]]), resulting in the Seljuk Turks being forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals.<ref name="John Joseph Saunders 1971"/> The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the battle, where he died in 1246; his death started a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260.

The [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] realm was divided among [[Kaykhusraw II|Kaykhusraw's]] three sons. The eldest, [[Kaykaus II]] (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river [[Kızılırmak River|Kızılırmak]]. His younger brothers, [[Kilij Arslan IV]] (1248–1265) and [[Kayqubad II]] (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near [[Aksaray]] and all of Anatolia became officially subject to [[Möngke Khan]]. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and [[Kaykhusraw III]] (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.

[[File:Anatolian Beyliks in 1300.png|thumb|upright=1|The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the [[Ilkhanate|Mongols]], and the emerging beyliks, c.&nbsp;1300]]
The Seljuk state had started to split into small [[emirate]]s ([[Anatolian beyliks|beyliks]]) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultan]] [[Baibars]] raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the [[Battle of Elbistan]],{{sfn|Kastritsis|2013|p=26}} temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. Following the ensuing chaos, the [[Karamanids]] under [[Shams al-Din Mehmed]] managed to capture [[Konya]], briefly installing [[Jimri]] as a puppet ruler of the Sultanate of Rum. Since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, Baibars soon had to return to his home base in [[Egypt]], and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] captured the Mediterranean coast from [[Gazipaşa|Selinos]] to [[Silifke|Seleucia]], as well as the cities of [[Kahramanmaraş|Marash]] and [[Besni|Behisni]], from the Seljuk in the 1240s.

Near the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the [[khutbah]] in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, ''the Pride of Islam''. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, [[Mesud II]], established himself as sultan in [[Kayseri]]. He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the [[Karamanids]] in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.