Editing Celtiberian language (section)

==Phonology==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2020}}

Celtiberian was a [[Celtic language]] that shows the characteristic sound changes of Celtic languages such as:<ref>{{cite book|last=Koch |first=John |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABL-CIO |year=2005 |pages=1465–66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=loss+of+p+in+celtiberian&pg=PA1465 |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |access-date=June 10, 2011}}</ref>

===PIE Consonants===

* PIE '''*bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ''' > '''b, d, g''': Loss of [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] voiced aspiration.
**Celtiberian and Gaulish placename element '''{{lang|xce|-brigā}}''' 'hill, town, akro-polis' < *''bʰr̥ǵʰ-eh₂'';
**'''{{lang|xce|nebintor}}''' 'they are watered' < *''nebʰ-i-nt-or''; 
**'''{{lang|xce|dinbituz}}''' 'he must build' < *''dʰingʰ-bī-tōd'', '''{{lang|xce|ambi-dingounei}}''' 'to build around > to enclose' < *''h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-o-mn-ei'' (cf. Latin ''{{lang|la|fingō}}'' 'to build, shape' < *''dʰingʰ-o'', Old Irish ''cunutgim'' 'erect, build up' < *''kom-ups-dʰingʰ-o''), '''{{lang|xce|ambi-diseti}}''' '(that someone) builds around > enclose' < *''h₂m̥bi-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti''. 
**'''{{lang|xce|gortika}}''' 'mandatory, required' < *''gʰor-ti-ka'' (cfr. Latin ''{{lang|la|ex-horto}}'' 'exhort' < *''ex-gʰor-to''); though, as the meaning in Celtiberian cannot be determined with certainty, this root may be related to Old Irish ''gort'' "field" (<PIE: *''g<sup>h</sup>о̄rd<sup>h</sup>-s'', Gen. *''g<sup>h</sup>rd<sup>h</sup>-os'' ‘enclosure, garden, pen") and its many Indo-European cognates.<ref>Matasovic, R. '' Etymological Dictionary Of Proto-Celtic'' Brill, 2009, pp. 264-265</ref>
**'''{{lang|xce|duatir}}''' 'daughter' < *''dʰugh₂tēr'', '''{{lang|xce|duateros}}''' 'grandson, son of the daughter' (Common Celtic ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|duxtir}}'');
**'''{{lang|xce|bezom}}''' 'mine' < *''bʰedʰ-yo'' 'that is pierced'.
* PIE '''*kʷ''': Celtiberian preserved the [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]] [[labialized velar consonant|labiovelar]] ''kʷ'' (hence [[Proto-Celtic language|Q-Celtic]]), a development also observed in Archaic Irish and Latin. On the contrary [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] and [[Gaulish]] ([[Proto-Celtic language|P-Celtic]]—a change also seen in some dialects of [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] and some [[Italic languages|Italic]] branches like [[Osco-Umbrian|P-Italic]]) changed ''kʷ'' to  ''p''. '''-kue''' 'and' < *''kʷe'', Latin ''-que'', Osco-Umbrian ''-pe'' 'and', ''neip'' 'and not, neither' < *''ne-kʷe''.
* PIE '''*ḱw''' > '''ku''': '''{{lang|xce|ekuo}}''' ''horse'' (in ethnic name ''ekualakos'') < *''h₁eḱw-ālo'' (cf. Middle Welsh ''ebawl'' 'foal' < *''epālo'', Latin ''{{lang|la|equus}}'' 'horse', OIr. ''ech'' 'horse' < *eko´- < *''h₁eḱwo-'', OBret. ''eb'' < *''epo-'' < *''h₁eḱwo-'');
**'''{{lang|xce|kū}}''' 'dog' < *''kuu'' < *''kwōn'', in '''{{lang|xce|Virokū}}''', 'hound-man, male hound/wolf, werewolf' (cfr. Old Irish ''Ferchú'' < *Virokū,  Old Welsh ''Gurcí'' < *Virokū 'idem.'.<ref>Lambert, Pierre-Yves. "Francisco Villar, M.a Pilar Fernandez Álvarez, ed. Religión, lengua y cultura prerromanas de Hispania, Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2001 (Acta Salmanticensia, Estudios Filológicos, 283). = Actas del VIII Coloquio internacional sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Península Ibérica (11-14 mai 1999, Salamanque)". In: ''Etudes Celtiques'', vol. 35, 2003. p. 393. [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2003_num_35_1_2242_t1_0386_0000_2]</ref>
* PIE '''*gʷ''' > '''b''': '''bindis''' 'legal agent' < *''gʷiHm-diks'' (cfr. Latin ''vindex'' 'defender');<ref>De Bernardo, P. "La gramática celtibérica del bronce de Botorrita. Nuevos Resultados". In Palaeohispanica 9 (2009), pp. 683-699.</ref>
**'''{{lang|xce|bovitos}}''' 'cow passage' < *''gʷow-(e)ito'' (cfr. OIr ''bòthar'' 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)itro),<ref>Schmidt, K. H. "How to define celtiberian archaims?". in Palaeohispanica 10 (2010), pp. 479-487.</ref> and '''boustom''' 'cowshed' < *''gʷow-sto''.
* PIE '''*gʷʰ''' > '''gu''': '''{{lang|xce|guezonto}}''' < *''gʷʰedʰ-y-ont'' 'imploring, pleading'. Common Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|guedyo}} 'ask, plead, pray', OIr. ''guidid'', W. ''{{lang|cy|gweddi}}''.
* PIE  '''*p''' > '''*φ''' > '''∅''': Loss of PIE *''{{PIE|p}}'', e.g. ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|ro-}}'' (Celtiberian, Old Irish and Old Breton) vs. Latin ''{{lang|la|pro-}}'' and [[Sanskrit]] ''{{transliteration|sa|IAST|pra-}}''. '''{{lang|xce|ozas sues}}''' acc. pl. fem. 'six feet, unit of measure' (< *''φodians'' < *''pod-y-ans'' *''sweks'');
**'''{{lang|xce|aila}}''' 'stone building' < *''pl̥-ya'' (cfr. OIr. ''ail'' 'boulder');
**'''{{lang|xce|vamos}}''' 'higher' < *''uφamos'' < *''up-m̥os'';
**'''{{lang|xce|vrantiom}}''' 'remainder, rest' < *''uper-n̥tiyo'' (cfr. Latin ''{{lang|la|(s)uperans}}'').
**Toponym '''{{lang|xce|Litania}}''' now [[Ledaña]] 'broad place' < *''pl̥th<sub>2</sub>-ny-a''.

Final '''*-m''' is preserved in Celtiberian (and Lepontic), a further indication of these dialects' conservatism. It is generally fronted to -n in Gaulish (exceptional cases, for instance on the [[Larzac tablet]], are probably due to influence from Latin): '''boustom''' "stable."<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p. 768 Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>

===Consonant clusters===

* PIE '''*mn''' > '''un''': as in Lepontic, Brittonic and Gaulish, but not Old Irish and seemingly not Galatian. '''{{lang|xce|Kouneso}}''' 'neighbour' < *''kom-ness-o'' < *''Kom-nedʰ-to'' (cf. OIr. ''comnessam'' 'neighbour' < *''Kom-nedʰ-t-m̥o'').
* PIE '''*pn''' > '''un''': '''{{lang|xce|Klounia}}''' < *''kleun-y-a'' < *''kleup-ni'' 'meadow' (Cfr. OIr. ''clúain'' 'meadow' < *''klouni''). However, in Latin *''pn'' > mn: ''{{lang|la|damnum}}'' 'damage' < *''dHp-no''.
* PIE '''*nm''' > '''lm''': Only in Celtiberian. '''{{lang|xce|melmu}}''' < *''men-mōn'' 'intelligence', '''{{lang|xce|Melmanzos}}''' 'gifted with mind' < *''men-mn̥-tyo'' (Cfr. OIr. ''menme'' 'mind' < *''men-mn̥''. Also occurs in modern Spanish: ''{{lang|es|alma}}'' 'soul' < *''anma'' < Lat. ''{{lang|la|anima}}'', Asturian ''galmu'' 'step' < Celtic {{lang|cel-x-proto|kang-mu}}.
* PIE '''*ps''' > '''*ss / s''': '''{{lang|xce|usabituz}}''' 'he must excavate (lit. up/over-dig)' < *''ups-ad-bʰiH-tōd'', '''{{lang|xce|Useizu}}''' * < *''useziu'' < *''ups-ed-yō'' 'highest'. The ethnic name ''{{lang|la|contestani}}'' in Latin (''contesikum'' in native language), recall the proper name '''{{lang|xce|Komteso}}''' 'warm-hearted, friendly' (< *''kom-tep-so'', cf. OIr. ''tess'' 'warm' > *''tep-so''). In Latin epigraphy that sound is transcribed with geminated: '''{{lang|xce|Usseiticum}}''' 'of the Usseitici' < *''Usseito'' < *''upse-tyo''. However, in [[Gaulish]] and [[Common Brittonic|Brittonic]] *ps > *x (cf. Gaulish ''Uxama'', MW. ''uchel'', 'one six').
* PIE '''*pt''' > '''*tt / t''': '''{{lang|xce|setantu}}''' 'seventh' (< *''septm<sub>o</sub>-to''). However, in Gaulish and Insular Celtic *pt > x: ''sextameto'' 'seventh', Old Irish ''sechtmad'' (< *''septm<sub>o</sub>-e-to'').
* PIE '''*gs''' > '''*ks''' > '''*ss / s''': '''sues''' 'six' < *''sweks'';
**'''{{lang|xce|Desobriga}}''' 'south/right city' (Celts oriented looking east) < *''dekso-*bʰr̥ǵʰa''; **'''{{lang|xce|Nertobris}}''' 'strength town' < *''h₂ner-to-*bʰr̥ǵʰs'';
**'''es-''' 'out of, not' < *''eks'' < *''h₁eǵʰs'' (cf. Lat. ''ex-'', Common Celtic ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|exs-}}'', OIr. ''ess-''). In Latin epigraphy that sound its transcript with geminated: '''{{lang|xce|Suessatium}}''' < *''sweks''- 'the sixth city' (cfr. Latin ''{{lang|la|Sextantium}}'')<ref>De Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia 2009 "El nombre -¿céltico?- de la Pintia vaccea". BSAA Arqueología Nº. 75, (243-256).</ref>
**'''{{lang|xce|Dessicae}}''' < *''deks-ika''. However, in [[Gaulish]] *ks > *x: ''Dexivates''.
* PIE '''*gt''' > '''*kt''' > '''*tt / t''': '''{{lang|xce|ditas}}''' 'constructions, buildings' < *''dʰigʰ-tas'' (= Latin ''{{lang|la|fictas}}'');
**'''{{lang|xce|loutu}}''' 'load' < *''louttu'' < *''louktu'' < *''leugʰ-tu'';
**'''{{lang|xce|litom}}''' 'it is permitted', '''{{lang|xce|ne-litom}}''' 'it is not permitted' (< *''l(e)ik-to'', cf. Latin ''{{lang|la|licitum}}'' < *''lik-e-to''). But Common Celtic *kt > *xt: ''luxtu'' < *''louktu'' < *''leugʰ-tu'', OIr. ''lucht''.
**Celtiberian '''{{lang|xce|Retugenos}}''' 'right born, lawful' < *''h₃reg-tō-genos'', Gaulish ''Rextugenos''. In Latin epigraphy that sound is transcribed with geminated: '''{{lang|xce|Britto}}''' 'noble' < *''brikto'' < *''bʰr̥ǵʰ-to''.
**'''{{lang|xce|Bruttius}}''' 'fruitful' < *''bruktio'' < *''bʰruHǵ-t-y-o'' (cfr. Latin ''{{lang|la|Fructuosus}}'' 'profitable').
* PIE '''*st''' > '''*st''': against Gaulish, Irish and Welsh, where the change was *st > ss. This preservation of the PIE cluster *st is another indication of the phonological conservatism of this dialect. '''{{lang|xce|Gustunos}}''' 'excellent' < *'''{{lang|xce|gustu}}''' 'excellence' < *''gus-tu''. Old Irish ''gussu'' 'excellence' (cfr. ''Fergus'' < *''viro-gussu''), Gaulish ''gussu'' ([[Lezoux Plate]], line 7).

===Vowels===

* PIE '''*e, *h₁e''' > '''e''': '''{{lang|xce|Togoitei eni}}''' 'in Togotis' < *''h₁en-i'' (cf. Lat. ''in'', OIr. ''in'' 'into, in'), '''{{lang|xce|somei eni touzei}}''' 'inside of this territory', '''es-''' 'out of, not' < *''eks'' < *''h₁eǵʰs'' (cf. Lat. ''ex-'', Common Celtic ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|exs-}}'', OIr. ''ess-''), '''{{lang|xce|esankios}}''' 'not enclosed, open' lit. 'unfenced' < *''h₁eǵʰs-*h₂enk-yos'', '''{{lang|xce|treba}}''' 'settlement, town', '''{{lang|xce|Kontrebia}}''' 'conventus, capital' < *''kom-treb-ya'' (cf. OIr. ''treb'', W. ''tref'' 'settlement'), '''{{lang|xce|ekuo}}''' ''horse'' < *''h₁ekw-os'', '''{{lang|xce|ekualo}}''' 'horseman'.
* PIE '''*h₂e''' > '''a''': '''{{lang|xce|ankios}}''' 'fenced, enclosed' < *''h₂enk-yos'', '''{{lang|xce|Ablu}}''' 'strong' < *''h₂ep-lō'' 'strength', '''{{lang|xce|augu}}''' 'valid, firm' < *''h₂ewg-u'', adj. 'strong, firm, valid'.
* PIE '''*o, *Ho''' > '''o''': '''{{lang|xce|olzui}}''' (dat.sing.) 'for the last' (< *''olzo'' 'last' < *''h₂ol-tyo'', cf. Lat. ''{{lang|la|ultimus}}'' < *''h₂ol-t-m̥o''. OIr. ''ollam'' 'master poet' < *''oltamo'' < *''h₂ol-t-m̥''), '''{{lang|xce|okris}}''' 'mountain' (< *''h₂ok-r-i'', cf. Lat. ''{{lang|la|ocris}}'' 'mountain', OIr. ''ochair'' 'edge' < *''h₂ok-r-i''), '''{{lang|xce|monima}}''' 'memory' (< *''monī-mā'' < *''mon-eye-mā'').
* PIE '''*eh₁''' > '''ē''' > '''ī'''?. This Celtic reflex isn't well attested in Celtiberian. e.g. IE ''<sup>*</sup>h<sub>3</sub>r{{PIE|ē}}g<sup>'</sup>-s'' meaning "king, ruler" vs. Celtiberian ''-reiKis'', Gaulish ''-rix'', British ''rix'', Old Irish, Old Welsh, Old Breton ''ri'' meaning "king". In any case, the maintenance of PIE ē = ē is well attested in '''{{lang|xce|dekez}}''' 'he did' < *''deked'' < *''dʰeh₁k-et'', identical to Latin ''fecit''.
* PIE '''*eh₂''' > '''ā''': '''{{lang|xce|dāunei}}''' 'to burn' < *''deh₂u-nei'' (Old Irish ''dóud, dód'' 'burn' < *''deh₂u-to-''), '''{{lang|xce|silabur sāzom}}''' 'enough money, a considerable amount of money' (< *''sātio'' < *''seh₂t-yo'', Common Celtic ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|sāti}}'' 'sufficiency', OIr. ''sáith''), '''kār''' 'friendship' (< *''keh₂r'', cf. Lat. ''cārus'' 'dear' < *''keh₂r-os'', Irish ''cara'' 'friend', W. ''caru'' 'love' < *''kh₂r-os'').
* PIE '''*eh₃, *oH''' > '''a/u''': Celtic ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|ū}}'' in final syllables and ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|ā}}'' in non-final syllables, e.g. IE ''<sup>*</sup>dh<sub>3</sub>-t{{PIE|ō}}d'' to Celtiberian '''{{lang|xce|datuz}}''' meaning 'he must give'. '''{{lang|xce|dama}}''' 'sentence' < *''dʰoh₁m-eh₂'' 'put, dispose' (cfr. Old Irish ''dán'' 'gift, skill, poem', Germanic dōma < *''dʰoh₁m-o'' 'verdict, sentence').
* PIE '''*Hw-''' > '''w-''': '''uta''' 'conj. and, prep. besides' (< *''h₂w-ta'', 'or, and', cfr, Umb. ''ute'' 'or', Lat. ''aut'' 'or' (< *''h₂ew-ti'').
* PIE '''ey''' remains '''ey''' in Celtiberian and Lepontic ('''teiuo-''' < *''dēywo-''), but in other Celtic languages, it becomes ē (apparently, another indication of the conservatism of Celtiberian, unless these spellings indicate a high /e/ rather than an actual diphthong).<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p753. Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>

===Syllabic resonants and laryngeals===

* PIE '''*n̥''' > '''an''' / '''*m̥''' > '''am''': '''{{lang|xce|arganto}}''' 'silver' < *''h₂r̥gn̥to'' (cf. OIr. ''argat'' and Latin  ''{{lang|la|argentum}}''). '''{{lang|xce|kamanom}}''' 'path, way' *''kanmano'' < *''kn̥gs-mn̥-o'' (cf. OIr. ''céimm'', OW. ''cemmein'' 'step'), '''{{lang|xce|decameta}}''' 'tithe' < *''dekm̥-et-a'' (cf. Gaulish ''decametos'' 'tenth', Old Irish ''dechmad'' 'tenth'), '''dekam''' 'ten' (cf. Lat. ''{{lang|la|decem}}'', Common Celtic ''dekam'', OIr. ''deich'' < *''dekm̥''), '''{{lang|xce|novantutas}}''' 'the nine tribes', '''{{lang|xce|novan}}''' 'nine' < *''h₁newn̥'' (cf. Lat. ''novem'', Common Celtic ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|novan}}'', OW. ''nauou'' < *''h₁newn̥''), '''ās''' 'we, us' (< *''ans'' < *''n̥s'', Old Irish ''sinni'' < *''sisni'', *''snisni'' 'we, us', cf. German ''uns'' < *''n̥s''), '''{{lang|xce|trikanta}}''' < *''tri-kn̥g-ta'', lit. 'three horns, three boundaries' > 'civil parish, shire' (modern Spanish [[Tres Cantos]]).
* Like Common Celtic and Italic (SCHRIJVER 1991: 415, McCONE 1996: 51 and SCHUMACHER 2004: 135), PIE '''*CHC > CaC''' (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal): '''{{lang|xce|datuz}}''' < *''dh₃-tōd'', '''{{lang|xce|dakot}}''' 'they put' < *''dʰh₁k-ont'', '''{{lang|xce|matus}}''' 'propitious days' < *''mh₂-tu'' (Latin ''{{lang|la|mānus}}'' 'good' < *''meh₂-no'', Old Irish ''maith'' 'good' < *''mh₂-ti'').
* PIE '''*CCH''' > '''CaC''' (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal): '''{{lang|xce|Magilo}}''' 'prince' (< *''mgh₂-i-lo'', cf. OIr. ''mál'' 'prince' < *''mgh₂-lo'').
* PIE '''*r̥R''' > '''arR''' and '''*l̥R''' > '''alR''' (R = resonant): '''{{lang|xce|arznā}}''' 'part, share' < ''*φarsna'' < *''parsna'' < *''pr̥s-nh₂''. Common Celtic ''{{lang|cel-x-proto|φrasna}}'' < *''prasna'' < *''pr̥s-nh₂'', cf. Old Irish ''ernáil'' 'part, share'.
* PIE '''*r̥P''' > '''riP''' and '''*l̥P''' > '''liP''' (P = plosive): '''{{lang|xce|briganti}}''' PiRiKanTi < *''bʰr̥ǵʰ-n̥ti''. '''{{lang|xce|silabur konsklitom}}''' 'silver coined' < *''kom-skl̥-to'' 'to cut'.
* PIE '''*Cr̥HV''' > '''CarV''' and '''*Cl̥HV''' > '''CalV''': '''sailo''' 'dung, slurry' *''salyo'' < *''sl̥H-yo'' (cf. Lat. ''{{lang|la|saliva}}'' < *''sl̥H-iwa'', OIr. ''sal'' 'dirt' < *''sl̥H-a''), '''{{lang|xce|aila}}''' 'stone building' < *''pl̥-ya'' (cf. OIr. ''ail'' 'boulder'), '''are-''' 'first, before' (Old Irish ''ar'' 'for', Gaulish ''are'' 'in front of', < *''pr̥h₂i''. Lat. ''prae-'' 'before' < *''preh₂i'').
* Like Common Celtic (JOSEPH 1982: 51 and ZAIR 2012: 37), PIE '''*HR̥C''' > '''aRC''' (H = any laringeal, R̥ any syllabic resonant, C = any consonant): '''{{lang|xce|arganto}}''' 'silver' < *''h₂r̥gn̥to'', not **''riganto''.

=== Exclusive developments ===
* [[Affricate consonant|Affrication]] of the PIE groups -*dy-, -*dʰy-. -*ty- > z/th (/θ/) located between vowels and of -*d, -*dʰ > z/th (/θ/) at the end of the word: '''adiza''' 'duty' < *''adittia'' < *''h₂ed-d(e)ik-t-ya''; '''{{lang|xce|Useizu}}''' 'highest' < *''ups-ed-yō''; '''{{lang|xce|touzu}}''' 'territory' < *''teut-yō''; '''rouzu''' 'red' < *''reudʰy-ō''; '''olzo''' 'last' < *''h₂ol-tyo''; '''ozas''' 'feet' < *''pod-y-ans''; '''datuz''' < *''dh₃-tōd''; '''{{lang|xce|louzu}}''' 'free' (in: LOUZOKUM, ''[[Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum|MLH]]'' IV, K.1.1.) < *''h₁leudʰy-ō'' (cf. [[Oscan language|Oscan]] ''loufir'' 'free man', [[Russian language|Russian]] ''ljúdi'' 'men, people'. That this is one of only a very few phonological developments that distinguishes Celtiberian phonologically from Proto-Celtic is one of the reasons Matasovic has concluded that Celtiberian is a very early independent branch of Proto-Celtic.<ref>Ranko Matasovic 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Leiden: Brill, 2009, p.17 https://archive.org/stream/EtymologicalDictionaryOfProtoCeltic/Etymological%20Dictionary%20of%20Proto-Celtic_djvu.txt</ref> It is noteworthy that this weakening of most non-initial Proto-Celtic voiced dental stops (''d''s) seems to indicate that Celtiberian had taken the first step in what became more widespread lenition of non-initial (and in some cases even initial) voiced consonants in later Celtic dialects.<ref>Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p.763 Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</ref>