Editing Serbo-Croatian (section)

=== Standardization ===
[[File:Rjecnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Đuro Daničić]], ''Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika'' (Croatian or Serbian Dictionary), 1882]]
[[File:Gramatika bosanskog jezika.jpg|thumb|upright|''Gramatika bosanskoga jezika'' (Grammar of the Bosnian Language), 1890]]

In the mid-19th century, Serbian (led by self-taught writer and folklorist [[Vuk Stefanović Karadžić]]) and most Croatian writers and linguists (represented by the [[Illyrian movement]] and led by [[Ljudevit Gaj]] and [[Đuro Daničić]]), proposed the use of the most widespread dialect, [[Shtokavian dialect|Shtokavian]], as the base for their common standard language. Karadžić standardised the [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet]], and Gaj and Daničić standardized the [[Gaj's Latin Alphabet|Croatian Latin alphabet]], on the basis of vernacular speech phonemes and the principle of phonological spelling. In 1850 Serbian and Croatian writers and linguists signed the [[Vienna Literary Agreement]], declaring their intention to create a unified standard.{{Sfn | Greenberg | 2004 | p = 24}} Thus a complex bi-variant language appeared, which the Serbs officially called "Serbo-Croatian" or "Serbian or Croatian" and the Croats "Croato-Serbian", or "Croatian or Serbian". Yet, in practice, the variants of the conceived common literary language served as different literary variants, chiefly differing in lexical inventory and stylistic devices. The common phrase describing this situation was that Serbo-Croatian or "Croatian or Serbian" was a single language. In 1861, after a long debate, the [[Croatian Parliament|Croatian Sabor]] put up several proposed names to a vote of the members of the parliament; "Yugoslavian" was opted for by the majority and legislated as the official language of the [[Triune Kingdom]]. The [[Austrian Empire]], suppressing Pan-Slavism at the time, did not confirm this decision and legally rejected the legislation, but in 1867 finally settled on "Croatian or Serbian" instead.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.snjezana-kordic.de/SAMARDZIJA.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023141331/http://www.snjezana-kordic.de/SAMARDZIJA.htm |archive-date=23 October 2016 |magazine={{ill|Književna republika|sh|vertical-align=sup}} |title=Pseudoznanost na djelu |trans-title=Pseudoscience at work |first=Snježana |last=Kordić |year=2007 |number=7–9 |location=Zagreb |pages=243–250 |editor-first1=Velimir |editor-last1=Visković |editor-link1=:sh:Velimir Visković |issn=1334-1057 |oclc=190812698}}</ref> During the [[Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the language of all three nations in this territory was declared "Bosnian" until the death of administrator [[Benjamin von Kállay|von Kállay]] in 1907, at which point the name was changed to "Serbo-Croatian".<ref>{{cite book |title=Industrialization of Bosnia-Hercegovina: 1878–1918 |url=https://archive.org/details/industrializatio0000unse_i6h0 |url-access=registration |last=Sugar |first=Peter F. |year=1963 |publisher=University of Washington Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/industrializatio0000unse_i6h0/page/201 201]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia at Peace and at War: Selected Writings, 1983–2007 |last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |year=2008 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |chapter=Nationalism and the 'Idiocy' of the Countryside: The Case of Serbia |pages=74–76 |isbn=978-3-03735-912-9}}</ref><ref name=velikonja>{{cite book |title=Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina |last=Velikonja |first=Mitja |year=1992 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1-58544-226-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/religiousseparat0000veli }}</ref>

With unification of the first the [[Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes]] – the approach of Karadžić and the Illyrians became dominant. The official language was called "Serbo-Croato-Slovenian" (''srpsko-hrvatsko-slovenački'') in the 1921 constitution.<ref name="Busch2004">{{cite book|last1=Busch|first1=Birgitta|last2=Kelly-Holmes|first2=Helen|title=Language, Discourse and Borders in the Yugoslav Successor States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlXQ5zKb_VQC&pg=PA26|year=2004|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1-85359-732-9|pages=26}}</ref> In 1929, the constitution was suspended,<ref>{{cite book|last=Tomasevich|first=Jozo|title=Contemporary Yugoslavia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a--6hauBIb4C&pg=PA8|year=1969|publisher=University of California Press|pages=8–9}}</ref> and the country was renamed the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], while the official language of Serbo-Croato-Slovene was reinstated in the 1931 constitution.<ref name="Busch2004" />

In June 1941, the Nazi puppet [[Independent State of Croatia]] began to rid the language of "Eastern" (Serbian) words, and shut down Serbian schools.<ref name="Crowe2013">{{cite book |first=David M. |last=Crowe |author-link=David M. Crowe |title=Crimes of State Past and Present: Government-Sponsored Atrocities and International Legal Responses |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GRTdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |date=13 September 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-98682-9 |page=61}}</ref> The totalitarian dictatorship introduced a language law that promulgated [[Croatian linguistic purism]] as a policy that tried to implement a complete elimination of Serbisms and internationalisms.<ref name="Busch2004 Sprachen im Disput">{{cite book | last=Busch |first=Brigitta |year=2004 |language=de |title=Sprachen im Disput |url=https://heteroglossia.net/fileadmin/user_upload/publication/sprachen_disput.pdf |location=Klagenfurt |publisher=Drava |page=205 |isbn=3-85435-428-2 |access-date=16 May 2022}}</ref>

On January 15, 1944, the Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia ([[AVNOJ]]) declared Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, and Macedonian to be equal in the entire territory of Yugoslavia.{{Sfn | Greenberg | 2004 | p = 115}} In 1945 the decision to recognize Croatian and Serbian as separate languages was reversed in favor of a single Serbo-Croatian or Croato-Serbian language.{{Sfn | Greenberg | 2004 | p = 115}} In the [[League of Communists of Yugoslavia|Communist]]-dominated [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|second Yugoslavia]], ethnic issues eased to an extent, but the matter of language remained blurred and unresolved.

In 1954, major Serbian and Croatian writers, linguists and literary critics, backed by [[Matica srpska]] and [[Matica hrvatska]] signed the [[Novi Sad Agreement]], which in its [[The Novi Sad Agreement#The text of the Novi Sad Agreement|first conclusion]] stated: "Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins share a single language with two equal variants that have developed around Zagreb (western) and Belgrade (eastern)". The agreement insisted on the [[The Novi Sad Agreement#The text of the Novi Sad Agreement|equal status]] of Cyrillic and Latin scripts, and of Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations.<ref name=JonkeRazvoj>{{cite journal|author=Jonke, Ljudevit |author-link=Ljudevit Jonke |title=Razvoj hrvatskoga književnog jezika u 20. stoljeću |trans-title=The Development of the Croatian language in the 20th century |journal=[[Jezik]] |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=18 |year=1968 |language=sh |issn=0021-6925}}</ref> It also specified that ''Serbo-Croatian'' should be the name of the language in official contexts, while in unofficial use the traditional ''Serbian'' and ''Croatian'' were to be retained.<ref name=JonkeRazvoj /> Matica hrvatska and Matica srpska were to work together on a dictionary, and a committee of Serbian and Croatian linguists was asked to prepare a {{lang|sh|pravopis}}. During the sixties both books were published simultaneously in Ijekavian Latin in Zagreb and Ekavian Cyrillic in Novi Sad.{{Sfn | Kordić | 2010 | pp = 303–304}} Yet Croatian linguists claim that it was an act of unitarianism. The evidence supporting this claim is patchy: Croatian linguist Stjepan Babić complained that the television transmission from Belgrade always used the Latin alphabet<ref name=BabHh>{{cite book|last=Babić |first=Stjepan| author-link=Stjepan Babić |year=2004 |language=sh |title=Hrvanja hrvatskoga |trans-title=Croatian Language Quarrels |location=Zagreb |publisher=Školska knjiga |page=36 |isbn=978-953-0-61428-4}}</ref>— which was true, but was not proof of unequal rights, but of frequency of use and prestige. Babić further complained that the Novi Sad Dictionary (1967) listed side by side words from both the Croatian and Serbian variants wherever they differed,<ref name=BabHh /> which one can view as proof of careful respect for both variants, and not of unitarism. Moreover, Croatian linguists criticized those parts of the Dictionary for being unitaristic that were written by Croatian linguists.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Milutinović, Zoran |title=Review of the Book ''Jezik i nacionalizam'' |journal=[[The Slavonic and East European Review]] |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=522–523 |year=2011 |url=http://www.snjezana-kordic.de/Rec_SEER.pdf |issn=0037-6795 |oclc=744233642 |id={{ZDB|209925-1}} |archive-date=2012-10-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004024736/http://www.snjezana-kordic.de/Rec_SEER.pdf |access-date=25 May 2014 }}</ref> And finally, Croatian linguists ignored the fact that the material for the {{lang|sh|Pravopisni rječnik}} came from the Croatian Philological Society.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jonke, Ljudevit |author-link=Ljudevit Jonke |title=Drugi i treći sastanak Pravopisne komisije |trans-title=The second and third meeting of The Orthographic Commission |journal=Jezik |volume=4 |issue=2 |page=59 |year=1955 |language=sh |issn=0021-6925}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Jonke, Ljudevit |author-link=Ljudevit Jonke |title=Pravopis hrvatskosrpskoga književnog jezika |trans-title=Serbo-Croatian Spelling-Book |journal=Jezik |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=57–59 |year=1961 |language=sh |issn=0021-6925}}</ref> Regardless of these facts, Croatian intellectuals brought the [[Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language]] in 1967. On occasion of the publication's 45th anniversary, the Croatian weekly journal ''Forum'' published the Declaration again in 2012, accompanied by a critical analysis.<ref>{{cite news |title=SOS ili tek alibi za nasilje nad jezikom |trans-title=SOS, or nothing but an alibi for violence against language |url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/578565.O_Deklaraciji_Forum.jpg |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |language=sh |location=Zagreb |publisher=Forum |date=16 March 2012 |pages=38–39 |issn=1848-204X |id={{CROSBI|578565}} |archive-date=21 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221223957/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/578565.O_Deklaraciji_Forum.jpg |access-date=9 April 2013 }}</ref>

West European scientists judge the Yugoslav language policy as an exemplary one:{{Sfn | Gröschel | 2009 | p = 72}}{{Sfn | Mappes-Niediek | 2005 | pp = 18, 64}} although three-quarters of the population spoke one language, no single language was official on a federal level.{{Sfn | Blum | 2002 | pp = 41–42}} Official languages were declared only at the level of constituent republics and provinces,<ref name=Gak>{{cite journal |author=Gak, Vladimir G. |title=K tipologii form jazykovoj politiki |trans-title=Towards a typology of language policy |journal=Voprosy Jazykoznanija |volume=5 |pages=122–123 |year=1989 |language=ru }}</ref>{{Sfn | Blum | 2002 | pp = 47–48}}{{Sfn | Gröschel | 2003 | pp = 160–161}} and very generously: Vojvodina had five (among them Slovak and Romanian, spoken by 0.5 per cent of the population), and Kosovo four (Albanian, Turkish, Romany and Serbo-Croatian).<ref name=Gak />{{Sfn | Blum | 2002 | p = 65}} Newspapers, radio and television studios used sixteen languages,{{Sfn | Blum | 2002 | p = 81}} fourteen were used as languages of tuition in schools, and nine at universities.<ref name=Gak />{{Sfn | Blum | 2002 | pp = 73–79}} Only the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] used Serbo-Croatian as the sole language of command, with all other languages represented in the army's other activities—however, this is not different from other armies of multilingual states,{{Sfn | Blum | 2002 | pp = 69–80}} or in other specific institutions, such as international air traffic control where English is used worldwide. All variants of Serbo-Croatian were used in state administration and republican and federal institutions.<ref name=Gak /> Both Serbian and Croatian variants were represented in respectively different grammar books, dictionaries, school textbooks and in books known as {{lang|sh|pravopis}} (which detail spelling rules).{{Sfn | Kordić | 2010 | pp = 291–292}} Serbo-Croatian was a kind of soft standardisation.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Busch |editor1-first=Brigitta |editor2-last=Kelly-Holmes |editor2-first=Helen |title=Language, Discourse and Borders in the Yugoslav Successor States |url=https://archive.org/details/languagediscours00busc |url-access=limited |publisher=Multilingual Matters |pages=[https://archive.org/details/languagediscours00busc/page/n56 51], 54 |chapter=Semantics of War in Former Yugoslavia |location=Clevedon |year=2004 |oclc=803615012}}</ref> However, legal equality could not dampen the prestige Serbo-Croatian had: since it was the language of three quarters of the population, it functioned as an unofficial lingua franca.{{Sfn | Kordić | 2010 | pp = 294–295}} And within Serbo-Croatian, the Serbian variant, with twice as many speakers as the Croatian,{{Sfn | Gröschel | 2009 | p = 38}} enjoyed greater prestige, reinforced by the fact that Slovene and Macedonian speakers preferred it to the Croatian variant because their languages are also Ekavian.{{Sfn | Kordić | 2010 | p = 299}} This is a common situation in other pluricentric languages, e.g. the variants of German differ according to their prestige, the variants of Portuguese too.{{Sfn | Ammon | 1995 | pp = 484, 494–497}} Moreover, all languages differ in terms of prestige: "the fact is that languages (in terms of prestige, learnability etc.) are not equal, and the law cannot make them equal".<ref>"die Tatsache, dass Sprachen (in ihrem Prestige, ihrer Erlernbarkeit etc.) nicht gleich sind und auch per Gesetz nicht gleich gemacht werden können" ({{Harvnb | Blum | 2002 | p = 170}})</ref>

==== Legal status ====
* 1921 constitution of the [[Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes]], Article 3: "The official language of the Kingdom is Serbo-Croato-Slovene." (Latin script: ''Službeni jezik Kraljevine je srpsko-hrvatski-slovenački.''; Cyrillic script: Службени језик Краљевине је српско-хрватски-словеначки.).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Устав Краљевине Срба, Хрвата и Словенаца (1921) |work=Викизворник |date= |access-date=20 July 2023 |url= https://sr.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0,_%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B0_(1921) |language=sr}}</ref><ref name="Busch2004"/>
* 1931 constitution of the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], Article 3: "The official language of the Kingdom is Serbo-Croato-Slovene".<ref name="Busch2004" />
* 1963 constitution of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]: 
** Article 42: "The languages of the peoples of Yugoslavia and their scripts shall be equal. Members of the peoples of Yugoslavia on the territories of republics other than their own shall have the right to school instruction in their own languages, in conformity with republican law. As an exception, in the Yugoslav People's Army, commands, military drill and administration shall be in the Serbo-Croatian language."<ref name="1963 constitution"/>
** Article 131: "The federal laws and other general acts of the federal organs shall be made public in the official gazette of the Federation, in the authentic texts in the languages of the peoples of Yugoslavia: in Serbo-Croatian and Croato-Serbian, Slovene and Macedonian. In official communication the organs of the Federation shall abide by the principle of equality of languages of the peoples of Yugoslavia."<ref name="1963 constitution">{{Cite web |title=Constitution of Yugoslavia (1963) |work=Wikisource |date= |access-date=20 July 2023 |url= https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Yugoslavia_(1963)}}</ref>
* 1974 constitution of the [[Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo]], Article 5: "In the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, the equality of the Albanian, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish languages and their scripts is guaranteed."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kushtetuta e Kosoves 1974 |author= |work=Internet Archive |date=1974 |access-date=21 July 2023 |url= https://archive.org/details/kushtetutaekosoves1974/page/n13/mode/2up |quote=Neni 5. Në Krahinën Socialiste Autonome të Kosovës sigurohet barazia e gjuhës shqipe, serbokroate e turke dhe e shkrimeve të tyre. |language=Albanian}}</ref>
* 1990 constitution of the [[Socialist Republic of Serbia|(Socialist) Republic of Serbia]], Article 8: "In the Republic of Serbia, the Serbo-Croatian language and the Cyrillic alphabet are in official use, while the Latin alphabet is in official use in the manner established by law."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Устав Републике Србије (1990) |work=Викизворник |date= |access-date=20 July 2023 |url= https://sr.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_(1990) |language=sr |quote=У Републици Србији у службеној је употреби српскохрватски језик и ћириличко писмо, а латиничко писмо је у службеној употреби на начин утврђен законом.}}</ref>
* 1993 constitution of the [[Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], Article 4: "In the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbo-Croatian or Croatian-Serbian language with the Ijekavian pronunciation is in official use. Both scripts — Latin and Cyrillic, are equal."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Устав Републике Босне и Херцеговине (1993) |work=Викизворник |date= |access-date=20 July 2023 |url= https://sr.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5_(1993) |language=sr}}</ref>
The 1946, 1953, and 1974 constitutions of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not name specific official languages at the federal level. The 1992 constitution of the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], in 2003 renamed [[Serbia and Montenegro]], stated in Article 15: "In the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Serbian language in its ekavian and ijekavian dialects and the Cyrillic script shall be official, while the Latin script shall be in official use as provided for by the Constitution and law."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of Yugoslavia (1992) |work=Wikisource |date= |access-date=20 July 2023 |url= https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Yugoslavia_(1992)}}</ref>

The term "Serbo-Croatian" (or synonyms) is not officially used in any of the successor countries of former Yugoslavia. The current [[Constitution of Serbia|Serbian constitution]] of 2006 refers to the official language as ''Serbian'',<ref>{{citation |title=2006 Constitution of Serbia |url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Serbia#Language_and_script |article=10}}</ref> while the current [[Constitution of Montenegro|Montenegrin constitution]] of 2007 proclaims ''Montenegrin'' as the official language but also grants other Serbo-Croatian varieties the right to official use.<ref>{{citation |title=Constitution of Montenegro |year=2007 |url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Montenegro#Article_13_.28Language_and_alphabet.29 |quote=The official language in Montenegro shall be Montenegrin.[…]Serbian, Bosniac, Albanian and Croatian shall also be in the official use.}}</ref> Croatian is the official language of Croatia, while Serbian is also official in municipalities with significant Serb population. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, all three standard varieties are recorded as official.

In Serbia, the Serbian standard has an official status countrywide, while both Serbian and Croatian are official in the province of [[Vojvodina]]. A large Bosniak minority is present in the southwest region of [[Sandžak]], but the "official recognition" of Bosnian is moot.<ref>Official communique, 27 December 2004, Serbian Ministry of Education {{in lang|sr}}</ref> Bosnian is an optional course in first and second grade of the elementary school, while it is also in official use in the municipality of [[Novi Pazar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Opštinski službeni glasnik opštine Novi Pazar |url=http://www.novipazar.org.rs/sl/gl_06_2002.pdf}}{{dead link|date=December 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}&nbsp;{{small|(65.8&nbsp;KB)}}, 30 April 2002, page 1</ref> However, its nomenclature is controversial, as there is incentive that it is referred to as "Bosniak" (''bošnjački'') rather than "Bosnian" (''bosanski'') (see also: [[Bosnian language#Controversy and recognition]]).