Editing Sultanate of Rum (section)

==Culture and society==
The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuks, based its political, religious and cultural heritage on the [[Turco-Persian tradition]] and [[Greco-Roman world]],<ref>''Saljuqs: Saljuqs of Anatolia'', Robert Hillenbrand, ''The Dictionary of Art'', Vol.27, Ed. Jane Turner, (Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1996), 632.</ref> even to the point of naming their sons with [[New Persian]] names.<ref>Rudi Paul Lindner, ''Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory'', (University of Michigan Press, 2003), 3.</ref> The Seljuks of Rum had inherited the administrative method of Persian statecraft from the Seljuk Empire, which they would later pass on to the Ottomans.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=48}} Despites such influences, Seljuk art remained essentially Central Asian in character.<ref>{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=106|quote=Despite the undoubted influence of Iranian culture on the Great Seljuks and the Anatolian Seljuks, Seljuk art remained essentially Central Asian in character.}}</ref>

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| image1   = Konya Karatay Ceramics Museum Kubad Abad Palace tile 2389.jpg
| caption1 = Sultan [[Kayqubad I]] (r.1220–1237) or a notable of his court, seated in Turkic style and holding a flower, symbol of eternal life. [[Kubadabad Palace]], late 1220s.<ref name="OM">{{cite book |last1=Özel |first1=Mehmet |title=Traditional Turkish Arts: Tiles and ceramics |date=1986 |publisher=General Directorate of Fine Arts, Ministry of Culture and Tourism,Turkish Republic |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22sPm_Xj9FwC&pg=PA15 |language=en |quote=Kubadabad tiles consist of panels of figural tiles linked by cruciform tiles decorated with arabesques. The figural tiles are decorated with figures of the sultan, harem women, courtiers and servants. However, the most interesting figures are the various animals related to hunting and the imaginary or magical animals. Such creatures as the sphinx, siren, single and double-headed eagles, single and paired peacocks, paired birds flanking the tree of life and dragon create a magical world of the imagination. They are all symbolic representations of the rich figural world of the Seljuks. Animals related to hunting, such as the fox, hare, wolf, mountain goat, wild ass, bear, lion, falcon, hawk and antelope are in widely varying and highly artistic compositions.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Art and architecture of Turkey |date=1980 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0273-9 |pages=175-176 |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/174/mode/2up?q=kubadabad&view=theater |quote=Usually made in the underglaze technique, the star tiles contain an extremely rich figural design, depicting '''the sultan''', the elite of the palace and animals of the hunt as well as imaginary or so-called 'fabulous' animals. (See figural reliefs and sculptures, p. 171.) The sultan and the palace notables, including in some cases the palace women, are shown sitting cross-legged in the Turkish tradition. In most cases, the figures hold in their hands a symbol representing eternal life-a pomegranate or opium branch or an astrological symbol like the fish. It is interesting to note the parallels with the same motifs in Anatolian Seljuk architecture.}}</ref>
| image2   = Enturbaned and bearded figure, holding an inscribed tablet. Large Palace, Kubadabad 1220s.jpg
| caption2 = Enturbaned and bearded figure of a likely high-ranking official, holding an inscribed tablet in his hand. [[Kubadabad Palace]], late 1220s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=YAVAŞ |first1=Alptekin |last2=KOÇYİĞİT |first2=Oğuz |title=KUBAD ABAD: Beyşehir Gölü Kıyısında Bir Selçuklu Sitesi |publisher=Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları |isbn=978-605-389-619-7 |page=Fig.90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41nPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT256 |language=tr |quote=(Translation from Turkish): Likely that they are depictions of high-ranking members of the palace or important wise people.}}</ref>}}
As an expression of Turco-Persian culture,<ref>{{citation | first = Bernard | last = Lewis | title = Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire | page = 29 | quote = Even when the land of Rum became politically independent, it remained a colonial extension of Turco-Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia&nbsp;... The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian&nbsp;... }}</ref> Rum Seljuks patronized [[Persian art]], [[Iranian architecture|architecture]], and [[Persian literature|literature]].{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as [[Kay Khosrow]], [[Kay Kawad|Kay Kawad/Qobad]], and [[Kay Kāvus]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=106}}</ref> The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm were generally Persian.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2020|p=15}} In the 13th century, most Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language.{{sfn|Shukurov|2020|p=155}}

It was in the 13th century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, encouraged by the major influx of Persian refugees fleeing Mongol invasions, who brought Persian culture with them and were instrumental in creating a "second Iran" in Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}} "Inner Anatolia was now set to become Muslim gradually, and this process occurred under the leadership of the Turks. In Anatolia, as elsewhere, the Seljuq rulers drank in Persian cultural ways in their cities. This tendency to copy Iran in administration, religion and culture reached its height in the thirteenth century with the fuller development of the Seljuq state in Anatolia and the influx of Persian refugees to Anatolian cities. Thus ‘a second Iran’ was created in Anatolia. It is food for thought that, while it was the Turks who conquered and settled the land of Anatolia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, it was the Persians who were instrumental in bringing to these territories a developed Islamic religious and secular culture. (...) ''Quote in French:'' Les réfugiés iraniens qui entrèrent en grand nombre en Anatolie à la suite des invasions mongoles de l’Iran – les fonctionnaires, les poètes, les Sufis et, avant tout, les cadres religieux – transformèrent de l’intérieur la culture urbaine de cette région."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Findley |first1=Carter V. |title=The Turks in World History |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-517726-8 |page=72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 |language=en |quote=Meanwhile, amid the migratory swarm that Turkified Anatolia, the dispersion of learned men from the Persian-speaking east paradoxically made the Seljuk court at Konya a new center for Perso-Islamic court culture.}}</ref> Iranian cultural, political, and literary traditions deeply influenced  Anatolia in the early 13th century.{{sfn|Hickman|Leiser|2016|p=278}} The notable historian [[Ibn Bibi]] composed a six-volume Persian language poetic work called the [[Selçukname]], modeled after the [[Shahnamah]], which focused on the Seljuk sultans.{{sfn|Inalcik|2008|p=20}}

[[File:Standing man holding a pomegranate. Late 1220s, Kubadabad.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.6|Standing man holding a pomegranate. Late 1220s, [[Kubadabad]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=117}}</ref>]]
Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes; even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Even Sultan [[Kilij Arslan II]], as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Persian poetry was written by sultans [[Suleiman II of Rûm|Suleiman II]], [[Kayqubad I]], and [[Kaykhusraw II]].{{sfn|Inalcik|2008|p=21}}  Written documents used either Persian or Anatolian Turkic, but the army used the Turkic language exclusively.<ref>{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=106|quote=However, scholarship and literature were influences by Iran, and Persian was used alongside Anatolian Turkic in written documents during this period, although Turkic was the only language used by the army.}}</ref>

The ''[[Rahat al-sudur]]'', the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, was dedicated to Sultan [[Kaykhusraw I]].{{sfn|Richards|Robinson|2003|p=265}} Even the ''[[Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq]]'', an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian.{{sfn|Crane|1993|p=2}} The sultans of Rum were largely not educated in Arabic.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}} This clearly limited the Arab influence, or at least the direct influence, to a relatively small degree.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}} In contrast, Persian literature and Iranian influence expanded because most sultans and even a significant portion of the townspeople knew the language.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}}

One of its most famous Persian writers, [[Rumi]], took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region.<ref>{{citation | chapter = The Oriental Margins of the Byzantine World: a Prosopographical Perspective | first = Rustam | last = Shukurov | editor-last1=Herrin|editor-first1=Judith|editor-last2=Saint-Guillain|editor-first2=Guillaume|title=Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mazcfdpVIC|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1098-0 | pages = 181–191 }}</ref><ref>{{citation | chapter = A sultan in Constantinople: the feasts of Ghiyath al-Din Kay-Khusraw I | first = Dimitri | last = Korobeinikov | editor-last1 =Brubaker|editor-first1 = Leslie|editor-last2=Linardou|editor-first2=Kallirroe|title=Eat, Drink, and be Merry (Luke 12:19): Food and Wine in Byzantium: Papers of the 37th Annual Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, in Honour of Professor A.A.M. Bryer|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGfbbVfR9Z8C&pg=PA96|date=2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6119-1 | page = 96 }}</ref> Based on their genealogy, it appears that the Seljuk sultans favored Christian [[concubinage in Islam|slave-concubines]], just like the early Ottoman sultans. Within the [[Seljuk harem]], Greek women were the most dominant.<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 121.</ref> Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}} With a population that included [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Armenians]], [[Kurds]], Turks, and Persians, the Seljuks were very successful between 1220 and 1250 and set the groundwork for later Islamization of Anatolia.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=333}}