Editing Tumbuka language (section)

==Phonology==
===Vowels===
The same vowels {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, {{IPA|/u/}} and syllabic {{IPA|/m̩/}} are found in Tumbuka as in the neighbouring languages.<ref>Vail (1972), p. 1.</ref>
[[File:Monile.ogg|thumb|Tumbuka greeting "Monile" which means "Hello".]]

===Consonants ===
Tumbuka consonants are similar to those of the neighbouring languages of Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia, but with certain differences. The continuant sounds {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, {{IPA|/β/}} and {{IPA|/h/}}, which are absent or marginal in other related languages, are common in Tumbuka. Also common are the palatalised sounds {{IPA|/vʲ/}}, {{IPA|/fʲ/}}, {{IPA|/bʲ/}}, {{IPA|/pʲ/}}, {{IPA|/skʲ/}}, {{IPA|/zgʲ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɽʲ/}}. In Tumbuka there are no affricates such as {{IPA|/psʲ/}}, {{IPA|/bzʲ/}}, {{IPA|/t͡s/}}, {{IPA|/d͡z/}}. The sounds {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} are never nasalised in Tumbuka, so that Nyanja {{lang|ny|nsómba}} ('fish') = Tumbuka {{lang|tum|somba}}. The sound {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is found only in foreign words such as {{lang|tum|shati}} ('shirt') and {{lang|tum|shuga}} ('sugar'). Tumbuka {{IPA|/ɽ/}} sometimes corresponds to {{IPA|/d/}}, for example Chewa {{lang|ny|kudwala}} 'to be ill' = Tumbuka {{lang|tum|kulwala}}, Chewa {{lang|ny|kudya}} 'to eat' = Tumbuka {{lang|tum|kulya}}. The pronunciation of "sk" and "zg" varies according to dialect.

Tumbuka consonants are frequently either palatalised (i.e. followed by /y/) or rounded (i.e. followed by /w/.) Some of them can also be preceded by a [[Homorganic consonant|homorganic]] nasal (/n/, /ng'/ or /m/). The possible consonant combinations are shown in the table below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Table of Tumbuka consonants<ref>Chavula (2016), pp. 11–13.</ref><ref>Vail (1972), pp. 4–19.</ref>
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 
! colspan="3" | [[Labial consonant|labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[Dental consonant|dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small> || <small>lab.</small> || <small>pal.</small>
! <small>plain</small> || <small>lab.</small> || <small>pal.</small>
! <small>plain</small> || <small>lab.</small>
! <small>plain</small> || <small>lab.</small>
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|nasal]]
| m<br />{{IPAslink|m}}
| mw<br />{{IPAslink|mʷ}}
| my<br />{{IPAslink|mʲ}}
| n<br />{{IPAslink|n}}
| nw<br />{{IPAslink|nʷ}}
| ny<br />{{IPAslink|nʲ}}
| 
| 
| ng'<br />{{IPAslink|ŋ}}
| ng'w<br />{{IPAslink|ŋʷ}}
| 
|-
! rowspan="5" | [[plosive]]/<br>[[affricate]]
! <small>unvoiced</small>
| p<br />{{IPAslink|p}}
| pw<br />{{IPAslink|pʷ}}
| py<br />{{IPAslink|pʲ}}
| t<br />{{IPAslink|t}}
| tw<br />{{IPAslink|tʷ}}
| ty<br />{{IPAslink|tʲ}}
| c<br />{{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}
| cw<br />{{IPAslink|t͡ʃʷ}}
| k<br />{{IPAslink|k}}
| kw<br />{{IPAslink|kʷ}}
| 
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| b<br />{{IPAslink|ɓ}}
| bw<br />{{IPAslink|ɓʷ}}
| by<br />{{IPAslink|bʲ}}
| d<br />{{IPAslink|ɗ}}
| dw<br />{{IPAslink|ɗʷ}}
| dy<br />{{IPAslink|ɗʲ}}
| j<br />{{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}}
| jw<br />{{IPAslink|d͡ʒʷ}}
| g<br />{{IPAslink|g}}
| gw<br />{{IPAslink|gʷ}}
| 
|-
! <small>aspirated</small>
| ph<br />{{IPAslink|pʰ}}
| phw<br />{{IPAslink|pʷʰ}}
| phy<br />{{IPAslink|pʲʰ}}
| th<br />{{IPAslink|tʰ}}
| thw<br />{{IPAslink|tʷʰ}}
| thy<br />{{IPAslink|tʲʰ}}
| ch<br />{{IPAslink|t͡ʃʰ}}
| 
| kh<br />{{IPAslink|kʰ}}
| khw<br />{{IPAslink|kʷʰ}}
| 
|-
! <small>nasalised</small>
| mb<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐb}}
| mbw<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐbʷ}}
| mby<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐbʲ}}
| nd<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿd}}
| ndw<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿdʷ}}
| (ndy){{efn|Only in the word {{lang|tum|ndyali}}.}}<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿdʲ}}
| nj<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿd͡ʒ}}
| 
| ng<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑg}}
| ngw<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑgʷ}}
| 
|-
! <small>nasalised<br>aspirated</small>
| mph<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐpʰ}}
| mphw<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐpʷʰ}}
| mphy<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐpʲʰ}}
| nth<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿtʰ}}
| nthw<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿtʷʰ}}
| (nthy)<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿtʲʰ}}
| nch<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿt͡ʃʰ}}
| 
| nkh<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑkʰ}}
| nkhw<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑkʷʰ}}
| 
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[fricative]]
! <small>unvoiced</small>
| f<br />{{IPAslink|f}}
| fw<br />{{IPAslink|fʷ}}
| fy<br />{{IPAslink|fʲ}}
| s<br />{{IPAslink|s}}
| sw<br />{{IPAslink|sʷ}}
| sk (sy)<br />{{IPAslink|sʲ}}
| (sh)<br />{{IPAslink|ʃ}}
| 
| 
| 
| h<br />{{IPAslink|h}}
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| v<br />{{IPAslink|v}}
| vw<br />{{IPAslink|vʷ}}
| vy<br />{{IPAslink|vʲ}}
| z<br />{{IPAslink|z}}
| zw<br />{{IPAslink|zʷ}}
| zg<br />{{IPAslink|zʲ}}
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
! colspan="2" | [[semivowel]]/ [[Liquid consonant|liquid]]
| ŵ<br />{{IPAslink|β}}
| w<br />{{IPAslink|w}}
| 
| l/r<br />{{IPAslink|ɽ}}
| lw/rw<br />{{IPAslink|ɽʷ}}
| ly/ry<br />{{IPAslink|ɽʲ}}
| y<br />{{IPAslink|j}}
| 
| gh<br />{{IPAslink|ɣ}}
| 
| 
|}
{{notelist}}

===Tone===

Tumbuka has a [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] accent but in a very limited way, in that every word, spoken in isolation, has the same falling tone on the penultimate syllable (which also coincides with stress).<ref>Downing (2008, 2012).</ref> It is therefore not possible in Tumbuka to contrast two different words or two different tenses tonally, as it is in other Bantu languages. However, this penultimate falling tone occurs not on every word, but only on the last word of a phonological phrase; e.g. in the following sentence, only the second word has a tone, the first being toneless:<ref>Downing (2012), p.123.</ref>
*{{lang|tum|ti-ku-phika sî:ma}} 'we are cooking porridge'

A greater variety of tonal patterns is found in the [[ideophone]]s (expressive words) of Tumbuka; for example Low ({{lang|tum|yoyoyo}} 'disintegrating into small pieces'), High ({{lang|tum|fyá:}} 'swooping low (of birds)'), High-Low ({{lang|tum|phúli}} 'sound of thing bursting'), and Low-High ({{lang|tum|yií}} 'sudden disappearance'), etc.<ref>Moto (1999), pp.112-120.</ref>

Intonational tones are also used in Tumbuka; for example, in yes-no questions there is often a High-Low fall on the final syllable of the question:<ref>Downing (2008), p.55.</ref>
*{{lang|tum|ku-limirâ-so ngô:mâ?}} 'are you also weeding the maize?'

There does not seem to be any consistent, direct correlation between tone in Tumbuka and [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]].<ref>Downing (2012), p.129.</ref>