Editing Shilha language (section)

== Phonology ==
{{See also|Berber_languages#Phonology}}

=== Stress and intonation ===
There is currently no evidence of word stress in Tashlhiyt.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roettger |first=Timo B. |title=Tonal placement in Tashlhiyt: How an intonation system accommodates to adverse phonological environments |publisher=Berlin: Language Science Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-944675-99-2 |pages=60 |chapter=Word stress in Tashlhiyt |doi=10.5281/zenodo.814472 |quote="At present, there is no convincing phonetic or phonological evidence for the presence of word stress in Tashlhiyt."}}</ref>

=== Vowels ===
Shilha has three phonemic vowels, with length not a distinctive feature.<ref>Galand (1988, 2.4).</ref> The vowels show a fairly wide range of allophones.<ref>Galand (1988, 2.13).</ref> The vowel /a/ is most often realized as [a] or [æ], and /u/ is pronounced without any noticeable rounding except when adjacent to {{Lang|shi-latn|w}}. The presence of a pharyngealized consonant invites a more centralized realization of the vowel, as in {{Lang|shi-latn|kraḍ}} {{IPA|[krɐdˤ]}} "three", {{Lang|shi-latn|kkuẓ}} {{IPA|[kkɤzˤ]}} "four", {{Lang|shi-latn|sḍis}} {{IPA|[sdˤɪs]}} "six" (compare {{Lang|shi-latn|yan}} {{IPA|[jæn]}} "one", {{Lang|shi-latn|sin}} {{IPA|[sin]}} "two", {{Lang|shi-latn|smmus}} {{IPA|[smmʊs]}} "five").

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! 
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|a}}
|
|}

Additional phonemic vowels occur sporadically in recent loanwords, for example {{IPA|/o/}} as in {{Lang|shi-latn|rristora}} "restaurant" (from French).

==== Transitional vowels and "schwa" ====
In addition to the three phonemic vowels, there are non-phonemic transitional vowels, often collectively referred to as "[[schwa]]". Typically, a transitional vowel is audible following the onset of a vowelless syllable CC or CCC, if either of the flanking consonants, or both, are voiced,<ref>Galand (1988, 2.1).</ref> for example {{Lang|shi-latn|tigmmi}} {{IPA|[tiɡĭmmi]}} "house", {{Lang|shi-latn|amḥḍar}} {{IPA|[amɐ̆ʜdˤɐr]}} "schoolboy". In the phonetic transcriptions of Stumme (1899) and Destaing (1920, 1940), many such transitional vowels are indicated.

Later authors such as Aspinion (1953), use the symbol {{angbr|e}} to mark the place where a transitional vowel may be heard, irrespective of its quality, and they also write {{angbr|e}} where in reality no vowel, however short, is heard, for example {{angbr|akessab}} {{IPA|/akssab/}} "owner of livestock", {{angbr|ar icetta}} {{IPA|/ar iʃtta/}} "he's eating". The symbol {{angbr|e}}, often referred to as "[[schwa]]", as used by Aspinion and others, thus becomes a purely graphical device employed to indicate that the preceding consonant is a syllable onset: {{Lang|shi-latn|[a.k(e)s.sab]|italic=no}}, {{Lang|shi-latn|[a.ri.c(e)t.ta]|italic=no}}.<ref>Cf. Dell and Elmedlaoui (2002:232), who observe the same practice in transcriptions of Moroccan Arabic. The practice is almost never applied entirely consistently. For example, the noun {{Lang|shi-latn|idrimn}} "money" is written as {{angbr|idrimen}}, with {{angbr|e}} indicating that {{Lang|shi-latn|m}} is the onset of the last syllable: {{Lang|shi-latn|[id.ri.m(e)n]|italic=no}}. But when a vowel follows, as in {{Lang|shi-latn|idrimn inu}} "my money", {{angbr|e}} should not be written, because the syllabic structure then becomes {{Lang|shi-latn|[id.rim.ni.nu]|italic=no}}. In such cases Aspinion and others routinely write {{angbr|idrimen inu}}, with superfluous {{angbr|e}}.</ref> As Galand has observed, the notation of "schwa" in fact results from "habits which are alien to Shilha".<ref>Galand (1988, 2.1), "le plus souvant les nombreuses notations de [ə] que l'on observe chez les berbèrisants résultent d'habitudes étrangères au chleuh".</ref> And, as conclusively shown by Ridouane (2008), transitional vowels or "intrusive vocoids" cannot even be accorded the status of [[Epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowels. It is therefore preferable not to write transitional vowels or "schwa", and to transcribe the vowels in a strictly phonemic manner, as in Galand (1988) and all recent text editions.{{efn|Text published in the modern orthography in Arabic script also do not represent transitional vowels or "schwa".}}

=== Consonants ===
[[File:Tamazightchelha.ogg|thumb|right|180px|Speech sample in Shilha (Chelha).]]
The chart below represents Tashlhiyt consonants in IPA, with orthographical representations added between angled brackets when different:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ridouane |first=Rachid |date=2014 |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=208 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |jstor=26351981 |s2cid=232344118 |issn=0025-1003|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyn-<br>geal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-style="font-size:85%"
! plain || [[Pharyngealization|phar.]]
! plain || [[Labialization|lab.]]
! plain || [[Labialization|lab.]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n̪}}
|  || || || || || || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t̪}}
| {{IPA link|t̪ˤ}} {{angbr|ṭ}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|kʷ}} {{angbr|k°}}
| {{IPA link|q}}
| {{IPA link|qʷ}} {{angbr|q°}}
|
|
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiced</small>]]
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d̪}}
| {{IPA link|d̪ˤ}} {{angbr|ḍ}}
|
| {{IPA link|g}}
| {{IPA link|gʷ}} {{angbr|g°}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s̪}}
| {{IPA link|s̪ˤ}} {{angbr|ṣ}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|c}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|χ}} {{angbr|x}}
| {{IPA link|χʷ}} {{angbr|x°}}
| {{IPA link|ʜ}} {{angbr|ḥ}}
|
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiced</small>]]
|
| {{IPA link|z̪}}
| {{IPA link|z̪ˤ}} {{angbr|ẓ}}
| {{IPA link|ʒ}} {{angbr|j}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ʁ}} {{angbr|ɣ}}
| {{IPA link|ʁʷ}} {{angbr|ɣ°}}
| {{IPA link|ʢ}} {{angbr|ɛ}}
| {{IPA link|ɦ}} {{angbr|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA link|l̪}}
| {{IPA link|l̪ˤ}} {{angbr|ḷ}}
| {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y}}
|
| {{IPA link|w}}
|  ||  ||  ||
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPA link|r̪}}
| {{IPA link|r̪ˤ}} {{angbr|ṛ}}
| ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||
|}

Additional phonemic consonants occur sporadically in recent loanwords, for example {{IPA|/bʷ/}} as in {{Lang|shi-latn|bb°a}} "(my) father" (from Moroccan Arabic), and {{IPA|/p/}} as in {{Lang|shi-latn|laplaj}} "beach" (from French).{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Like other Berber languages and Arabic, Tashlhiyt has both [[Pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] ("emphatic") and plain dental consonants.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Kossmann |first=Maarten |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/795895594 |title=The Afroasiatic languages |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Zygmunt Frajzyngier, Erin Shay |isbn=978-1-139-42364-9 |location=Cambridge |pages=22–23 |chapter=Berber |oclc=795895594}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Roettger |first=Timo B. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1030816520 |title=Tonal placement in Tashlhiyt : How an intonation system accommodates to adverse phonological environments. |date=2017 |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-944675-99-2 |location=Berlin |pages=37 |oclc=1030816520}}</ref> There is also a distinction between [[Labialization|labialized]] and plain [[dorsal consonant|dorsal]] [[obstruent]]s.<ref name=":0" /> Consonant [[gemination]] or length is contrastive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ridouane |first=Rachid |date=2014 |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=211 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |jstor=26351981 |s2cid=232344118 |issn=0025-1003|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Semivowels ====
The semivowels {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} have vocalic allophones {{IPA|[u]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} between consonants (C_C) and between consonant and pause (C_# and #_C). Similarly, the high vowels {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} can have consonantal allophones {{IPA|[w]}} and {{IPA|[j]}} in order to avoid a hiatus. In most dialects,<ref>The speech of the Ighchan, and possibly other Shilha variants, often retains the original semivowels (Galand 1988, 2.9), and this can also be seen in premodern manuscript texts (van den Boogert 1997:249).</ref> the semivowels are thus in complementary distribution with the high vowels, with the semivowels occurring as onset or coda, and the high vowels as nucleus in a syllable. This surface distribution of the semivowels and the high vowels has tended to obscure their status as four distinct phonemes, with some linguists denying phonemic status to /w/ and /j/.<ref>Applegate (1958), Dell and Elmedlaoui (1985, 2002), Ridouane (2008).</ref>

Positing four distinct phonemes is necessitated by the fact that semivowels and high vowels can occur in sequence, in lexically determined order, for example {{Lang|shi-latn|tazdwit}} "bee", {{Lang|shi-latn|tahruyt}} "ewe" (not *{{Lang|shi-latn|tazduyt}}, *{{Lang|shi-latn|tahrwit}}). In addition, semivowels {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, like other consonants, occur long, as in {{Lang|shi-latn|afawwu}} "wrap", {{Lang|shi-latn|tayyu}} "camel's hump".<ref>This issue is discussed in connection with other languages by Dixon (2010:284).</ref> The assumption of four phonemes also results in a more efficient description of morphology.<ref>Van den Boogert (1997:247–8), with examples.</ref>

In the examples below, {{Lang|shi-latn|w}} and {{Lang|shi-latn|y}} are transcribed phonemically in some citation forms, but always phonetically in context, for example {{Lang|shi-latn|ysti-}} "the daughters of", {{Lang|shi-latn|dars snat istis}} "he has two daughters".

==== Gemination and length ====
Any consonant in Tashlhiyt, in any position within a word, may be simple or geminate. There may be up to two geminates in a stem, and up to three in a word.<ref name=":1" />

The role of gemination varies:<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Elmedlaoui |first=Mohamed |title=Semitic and Afroasiatic: challenges and opportunities |date=2012 |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-06695-2 |editor-last=Edzard |editor-first=Lutz |series=Porta linguarum orientalium |location=Wiesbaden |pages=143 |chapter=Berber}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="2" |Word with Simple Consonant
! colspan="2" |Word with Geminate Consonant
! rowspan="2" |Role of Gemination
|-
!Tashlhiyt
!Translation
!Tashlhiyt
!Translation
|-
|''tamda''
|pond
|''tamdda''
|brown buzzard
|lexical difference
|-
|''zdi''
|to stick ([[Perfect (grammar)|perfect]])
|''zddi''
|to stick ([[Imperfective aspect|imperfective]])
|morphology
|}
Gemination also may occur due to phonological assimilation. For example, the following phrase would be realized as [babllfirma]:<ref name=":1" />

{{Interlinear|lang=shi-latn|indent=2
|top= babllfirma
|bab n{{=}}l-firma
|owner of{{=}}farm
|the owner of the farm}}

Some consonants are realized differently during morphological gemination; {{Lang|shi-latn|ḍḍ}} as {{Lang|shi-latn|ṭṭ}}, {{Lang|shi-latn|ww}} as {{Lang|shi-latn|gg°}}, {{Lang|shi-latn|ɣɣ}} as {{Lang|shi-latn|qq}}, and {{Lang|shi-latn|ɣɣ°}} as {{Lang|shi-latn|qq°}}.<ref name=":1" />

=== Syllable structure ===
Shilha syllable structure has been the subject of a detailed and highly technical discussion by phoneticians. The issue was whether Shilha does or does not have vowelless syllables. According to John Coleman, syllables which are vowelless on the phonemic level have "schwa" serving as vocalic nucleus on the phonetic level. According to Rachid Ridouane on the other hand, Shilha's apparently vowelless syllables are truly vowelless, with all phonemes, vowels as well as consonants, capable of serving as nucleus. The discussion is summed up in Ridouane (2008, with listing of relevant publications), where he conclusively demonstrates that a perfectly ordinary Shilha phrase such as {{Lang|shi-latn|tkkst stt}} "you took it away" indeed consists of three vowelless syllables [tk.ks.tst:.], each made up of voiceless consonants only, and with voiceless consonants (not "schwa") serving as nucleus. Many definitions of the syllable that have been put forward do not cover the syllables of Shilha.<ref>For example, "Syllable: A phonological unit consisting of a vowel or other unit that can be produced in isolation, either alone or accompanied by one or more less sonorous units" (P.H. Matthews, ''Oxford concise dictionary of linguistics'', Second Edition, Oxford: OUP, 2007). See also [[Syllable]], which contains references to other languages with vowelless syllables.</ref>

==== Syllable types ====
The syllable structure of Shilha was first investigated by Dell and Elmedlaoui in a seminal article (1985). They describe how syllable boundaries can be established through what they call "core syllabification". This works by associating a nucleus with an onset, to form a core syllable CV or CC. Segments that are higher on the sonority scale have precedence over those lower on the scale in forming the nucleus in a core syllable, with vowels and semivowels highest on the scale, followed by liquids and nasals, voiced fricatives, voiceless fricatives, voiced stops and voiceless stops. When no more segments are available as onsets, the remaining single consonants are assigned as coda to the preceding core syllable, but if a remaining consonant is identical to the consonant that is the onset of the following syllable, it merges with it to become a long consonant. A morpheme boundary does not necessarily constitute a syllable boundary.

{{interlinear|lang=shi-latn|number=ex:
|ddan s yaw wurti kcmn iss ad ccin tazart d waḍil
|they.went to one EA-orchard they.enter into-it to- they.eat EL-figs with EA-grapes
|"they went to an orchard and entered it to eat figs and grapes"}}

{| class="wikitable"
!
| {{mono|ddan s yaw wurti kcmn iss ad ccin tazart d waḍil}}
|-
! Core syllabification
| {{mono|d{{color|#09c|da}}{{color|#9c3|n s}} {{color|#09c|ya}}w {{color|#9c3|wu}}r{{color|#09c|ti}} k{{color|#9c3|cm}}{{color|#09c|n i}}s{{color|#9c3|s a}}{{color|#09c|d c}}{{color|#9c3|ci}}n {{color|#09c|ta}}{{color|#9c3|za}}r{{color|#09c|t d}} {{color|#9c3|wa}}{{color|#09c|ḍi}}l}}
|-
! Coda assignment:
| {{mono|{{color|#09c|d:a}}{{color|#9c3|n s}} {{color|#09c|ya}} {{color|#9c3|w:ur}}{{color|#09c|ti k}}{{color|#9c3|cm}}{{color|#09c|n i}}{{color|#9c3|s: a}}{{color|#09c|d c}}{{color|#9c3|cin}} {{color|#09c|ta}}{{color|#9c3|zar}}{{color|#09c|t d}} {{color|#9c3|wa}}{{color|#09c|ḍil}} }}
|}

Comparative diagram of the following:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|- style="font-size:85%"
!
! colspan="28" |Example of Phonological Processes in Shilha
|-
!Gloss of text
| colspan="3" | they.went
| to
| colspan="2" |one
| colspan="3" | EA-orchard
| colspan="3" |they.enter
| colspan="3" |into-it
| colspan="2" |to-
| colspan="3" |they.eat
| colspan="4" |EL-figs
|with
| colspan="3" |EA-grapes
|-
!Shilha text
| colspan="3" | ddan
|  s|| colspan="2" | yaw|| colspan="3" |  wurti|| colspan="3" | kcmn|| colspan="3" |iss
| colspan="2" |ad
| colspan="3" |ccin
| colspan="4" |tazart
|d
| colspan="3" |waḍil
|-
!Core Syll
|d
| (da)
| colspan="2" |(ns)
|(ya)
|w
| (wu)
| r
| (ti)
| k
|(cm)
| colspan="2" |(ni)
|s
| colspan="2" |(sa)
| colspan="2" |(dc)
|(ci)
|n
|(ta)
|(za)
|r
| colspan="2" |(td)
|(wa)
|(ḍi)
|l
|-
!Coda Assgn.
| colspan="2" | (d:a)
| colspan="2" |(ns)
| (ya)
| colspan="3" |(w:ur)
| colspan="2" | (tik)
| (cm)
| colspan="2" |(ni)
| colspan="3" |(s:a)
| colspan="2" |(dc)
| colspan="2" |(cin)
|(ta)
| colspan="2" |(zar)
| colspan="2" |(td)
|(wa)
| colspan="2" |(ḍil)
|-
!English trans
| colspan="28" |"they went to an orchard and entered it to eat figs and grapes"
|}Application of core syllabification produces the following Shilha syllable types:

{| class="wikitable" border='1'
|-
|width="80"|C V
|width="80"|C: V
|width="80"|
|width="80"|
|-
|C V C
|C: V C
|C V C:
|C: V C:
|-
|C C
|C: C
|C C:
|C: C:
|-
|C C C
|C: C C
|C C C:
|C: C C:
|}

Shilha syllable structure can be represented succinctly by the formula {{Not a typo|CX(C)}}, in which C is any consonant (single/long), and X is any vowel or consonant (single) and with the restriction that in a syllable CXC the X, if it is a consonant, cannot be higher on the resonance scale than the syllable-final consonant, that is, syllables such as [tsk.] and [wrz.] are possible, but not *[tks.] and *[wzr.].

Exceptional syllables of the types X (vowel or single/long consonant) and {{Not a typo|V(C)}} (vowel plus single/long consonant) occur in utterance-initial position:
:{{Lang|shi-latn|rgl t}} [r.glt.] "close it!" (syllable C)
:{{Lang|shi-latn|ffɣat}} [f:.ɣat.] "go out!" (syllable C:)
:{{Lang|shi-latn|awi t id}} [a.wi.tid.] "bring it here!" (syllable V)
:{{Lang|shi-latn|acki d}} [ac.kid.] "come here!" (syllable VC)
Another exceptional syllable type, described by Dell and Elmedlaoui (1985), occurs in utterance-final position, when a syllable of the type CC or CC: is "annexed" to a preceding syllable of the type CV or C:V, for example {{Lang|shi-latn|fssamt}} "be silent!" is [fs.samt.] not *[fs.sa.mt.].

Since any syllable type may precede or follow any other type, and since any consonant can occur in syllable-initial or final position, there are no phonotactical restrictions on consonant sequences. This also means that the concept of the consonant cluster is not applicable in Shilha phonology, as any number of consonants may occur in sequence:

{{interlinear|lang=shi-latn|number=ex:
|frḥɣ s lmɛrft nnk
|I.am.glad by.means.of the.acquaintance of.you
|"I'm glad to make your acquaintance"}}

:[fr.ḥɣs.lm.ɛrf.tn.nk.] (6 syllables, 14 consonants, no vowels)

==== Metrics ====
The metrics of traditional Shilha poems, as composed and recited by itinerant bards ({{Lang|shi-latn|inḍḍamn}}), was first described and analyzed by Hassan Jouad (thesis 1983, book 1995; see also Dell and Elmedlaoui 2008). The traditional metrical system confirms the existence of vowelless syllables in Shilha, and Jouad's data have been used by Dell and Elmedlaoui, and by Ridouane to support their conclusions.

The metrical system imposes the following restrictions:
*each line in a poem contains the same number of syllables as all the other lines
*each syllable in a line contains the same number of segments as its counterpart in other lines
*each line contains one particular syllable that must begin or end with a voiced consonant
*each line is divided into feet, with the last syllable in each foot stressed ("lifted") in recitation
Within these restrictions, the poet is free to devise his own metrical form. This can be recorded in a meaningless formula called {{Lang|shi-latn|talalayt}} which shows the number and the length of the syllables, as well as the place of the obligatory voiced consonant (Jouad lists hundreds of such formulae).

The system is illustrated here with a quatrain ascribed to the semi-legendary Shilha poet [[Hemmou Talb|Sidi Ḥammu]] (fl. 18th century) and published by Amarir (1987:64):
{{Poem quote|text={{Lang|shi-latn|a titbirin a tumlilin a timgraḍ
ab bahra wr takkamt i lxla hann lbaz
igan bu tassrwalt ig lxatm ɣ uḍaḍ
ak k°nt yut ukan iɣli d ignwan izug}}}}
{{Poem quote|text="O white doves, O pets!
Do not venture into the desert too often, for there is the falcon,
Wearing small trousers; he'll put a ring on [your] finger,
To strike you but once — then he ascends into the sky and is gone!"}}

Application of Dell and Elmedlaoui's core syllabification reveals a regular mosaic of syllables:

{| class="wikitable"
!width="80"|
!width="40"|1
!width="70"|2
!
!width="60"|3
!width="60"|4
!width="60"|5
!width="70"|6
!
!width="60"|7
!width="60"|8
!width="60"|9
!width="60"|10
!
!width="60"|11
!width="70"|12
|-
!Line 1
|a
|t í t
|
|b i
|r i
|n a
|t ú m
|
|l i
|l i
|n a
|t í
|
|m g
|r á ḍ
|-
!Line 2
|a
|b: á h
|
|r a
|w r
|t a
|k: á m
|
|t i
|l x
|l a
|h á
|
|n: l
|b á z
|-
!Line 3
|i
|g á n
|
|b u
|t a
|s: r
|w á l
|
|t i
|g l
|x a
|t ḿ
|
|ɣ u
|ḍ á ḍ
|-
!Line 4
|a
|k°: ń t
|
|y u
|t u
|k a
|n í ɣ
|
|l i
|d i
|g n
|w á
|
|n i
|z ú g
|}

The poem is composed in a metre listed by Jouad (1995:283) and exemplified by the formula {{Lang|shi-latn|a láy}}, {{Lang|shi-latn|la li la láy}}, {{Lang|shi-latn|la li la lá}}, {{Lang|shi-latn|li lád}} (the {{Lang|shi-latn|d}} in the last syllable indicates the position of the compulsory voiced consonant).