Editing Demotic Greek

{{short description|Vernacular form of Modern Greek}}
{{Distinguish|Demotic (Egyptian)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}{{Use Oxford spelling|date = December 2024}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2012}}

'''Demotic Greek''' ({{langx|el|Δημοτική Γλώσσα}}, {{Transliteration|el|Dimotikí Glóssa}}, {{IPA|el|ðimotiˈci ˈɣlo.sa|}}, {{Lit|language of the people}}) is the standard spoken language of Greece in modern times and, since the resolution of the [[Greek language question]] in 1976, the official language of Greece.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Demotic-Greek-language|title=Demotic Greek language|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-04-16}}</ref> "Demotic Greek" (with a capital D) contrasts with the conservative [[Katharevousa]], which was used in formal settings, during the same period. In that context, Demotic Greek describes the specific non-standardized [[vernacular]] forms of Greek used by the vast majority of Greeks during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Babiniotis|first=Georgios|title=Lexiko tis neas ellinikis glossas|year=2002|location=Athens|page=474|language=Greek|trans-title=Dictionary of the new Greek language}}</ref>

As is typical of [[Diglossia|diglossic]] situations, Katharevousa and Demotic complemented and influenced each other. Over time, Demotic became standardized. In 1976, it was made the official language of Greece.  It continued to evolve and is now called [[Standard Modern Greek]]. The term "demotic Greek" (with a minuscule d) also refers to any variety of the [[Greek language]] which has evolved naturally from [[Ancient Greek]] and is popularly spoken.

==Basic features==
Demotic Greek differs in a few ways from Ancient Greek and from subsequent learned forms of Greek. Syntactically, it favours [[parataxis]] over [[Conjunction (grammar)#Subordinating conjunctions|subordination]]. It also heavily employs [[Redundancy (linguistics)|redundancy]], such as {{wikt-lang|el|μικρό}} {{wikt-lang|el|κοριτσάκι}} (''small little-girl'') and {{wikt-lang|el|ξανακοιμήθηκε}} {{wikt-lang|el|πάλι}} (''he-went-back-to-sleep again''). Demotic also employs the [[Diminutive#Greek|diminutive]] with great frequency,<ref name="pringpocket"/>{{rp |XI}} to the point that many Demotic forms are in effect [[grammatical gender|neuter]] diminutives of ancient words, especially irregular ones, e.g. {{wikt-lang|el|νησί}} from {{lang|el|νήσιον}} (''island'') from ancient {{wikt-lang|grc|νῆσος}} (''island'').

Greek noun declensions underwent considerable alteration, with irregular and less productive forms being gradually [[Regularization (linguistics)|regularized]] (e.g. ancient {{lang|grc|ἀνήρ}} being replaced by {{lang|el|άντρας}} (''man'')). Another feature is the merging of classical accusative and nominative forms: They are only distinguished in Demotic by their definite articles, which continued to be declined as in Ancient Greek. This was especially common with nouns of the third declension, such as {{wikt-lang|grc|πατρίς}} (''hometown'', ''fatherland'') which became nominative {{lang|el|η πατρίδα}}, accusative {{lang|el|την πατρίδα}} in Demotic.<ref name= "pringpocket"/>{{rp|X}}

A result of this regularization of noun forms in Demotic is that most native words end in a vowel, ''s'' ({{Lang|el|[[sigma|ς]]}}), or ''n'' ({{lang|el|[[Nu (letter)|ν]]}}). Thus, the set of possible word-final sounds is even more restricted than in Ancient Greek. Exceptions are foreign loans like {{lang|el|μπαρ}} (''bar''), learned forms {{lang|el|ύδωρ}} (from Ancient Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|ὕδωρ}}, ''water''), and [[Interjection|exclamations]] like {{wikt-lang|el|αχ|αχ!}} (''ach!'', ''oh!''). Many dialects even append the vowel -''e'' ({{lang|el|ε}}) to third-person verb forms: {{wikt-lang|el|γράφουνε}} instead of {{wikt-lang|el|γράφουν}} (''they write''). Word-final [[consonant cluster]]s are also rare, again mainly occurring in learned discourse and via foreign loans: {{wikt-lang|el|άνθραξ}} (''coal'' – scientific) and {{wikt-lang|el|μποξ}} (''boxing'' – sport).<ref name="comprehensivegreek">{{cite book |author1-link = Peter Mackridge| last1 = Mackridge | first1 = Peter |last2= Philippaki-Warburton|first2=Irene|date=1997|title=Greek: a Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language|location=New York |publisher= Routledge|isbn=0-41510002-X}}</ref>{{rp |8–9}}

The [[indirect object]] is usually expressed by prepending the word {{lang|el|σε}} to the [[accusative case|accusative]]<ref name="pringpocket" />{{rp|X}} {{Clarify span|text=(where Ancient Greek had {{lang|grc|εἰς}} for accusative of motion toward)|date=August 2024}}{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} or [[Genitive case|genitive]]<ref name="pringpocket" />{{rp|X}} (especially with regard to means or instrument).{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} Bare {{lang|el|σε}} is used without the article to express an indefinite duration of time, or contracted with the definite article for [[definiteness]] (especially with regard to place where or motion toward).{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} {{Clarify span|text=Using one noun with an unmarked accusative article-noun phrase followed by {{lang|el|σε}} contracted with the definite article of a second noun distinguishes between definite direct and indirect objects, whether real or figurative, e.g. «{{lang|el|βάζω το χέρι μου στο ευαγγέλιο}}» or  «...{{lang|el|στη φωτιά}}» (lit. ''I put my hand upon the Gospel'' or ''...in the fire'', i.e. ''I swear it's true'', ''I'm sure of it'').|reason=The grammar of this sentence makes it very difficult to follow.|date=August 2024}}{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} By contrast, Katharevousa continued to employ the older {{lang|el|εἰς}} in place of {{lang|el|σε}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

The verb system inherited from Ancient Greek gradually evolved. The perfect, pluperfect, future perfect, and past conditional tenses were gradually replaced with conjugated forms of the verb {{lang|el|έχω}} (''I have'').<ref name="pringpocket" />{{rp|X}} The future tense and the subjunctive and optative moods, and eventually the infinitive, were replaced by the modal/tense auxiliaries {{lang|el|θα}} and {{lang|el|να}}{{Citation needed|date=August 2024|reason=The cited source only mentions θα.}} used with either the simplified or fused future/subjunctive forms.<ref name="pringpocket"/>{{rp|X}} In contrast to this, Katharevousa employed older perfective forms and infinitives that had been mostly lost in the spoken language.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} However, Katharevousa did sometimes employ the same [[aorist]] or perfective forms as the spoken language, but preferred an archaizing form of the present indicative, e.g. {{wikt-lang|el|κρύπτω}} for Demotic {{wikt-lang|el|κρύβω}} (''I hide''), which both have the same aorist form {{lang|el|έκρυψα}}.<ref name="pringpocket"/>{{rp|XI}}

Demotic Greek also borrowed a significant number of words from other languages, including Italian and Turkish, something which Katharevousa avoided.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

==Demotic and Modern Greek==
===Demotic as "Standard Modern Greek"===
Demotic is commonly used interchangeably with "[[Modern Greek|Standard Modern Greek]]" (''{{lang|el|Νέα Ελληνικά}}''). Nonetheless, these terms are not necessarily synonyms. While today's Standard Modern Greek is fundamentally a continuation of earlier Demotic, it also contains—especially in its written form and [[Register (sociolinguistics)|formal registers]]—numerous words, grammatical forms, and phonetical features that did not exist in the most "pure" and consistent forms of Demotic during the period of diglossia in Greece. Due to these admixtures, it could even be described as a product of a "merger" between earlier Demotic and Katharevousa.<ref name=":0" />

Furthermore, in a broader sense, the Greek term {{Lang|el|Δημοτική|italic=yes}} ({{Lang|el-Latn|Dimotikí}}) can also describe any naturally evolved colloquial language of the Greeks, not just that of the period of diglossia.

===Modern features that did not exist in Demotic===
The following examples are intended to demonstrate Katharevousa features in Modern Greek. They were not present in traditional Demotic and only entered the modern language through Katharevousa (sometimes as [[neologism]]s), where they are used mostly in writing (for instance, in newspapers), but also orally, especially words and fixed expressions are both understood and actively used also by non-educated speakers. In some cases, the Demotic form is used for literal or practical meanings, while the ''Katharevousa'' is used for figurative or specialized meanings: e.g. {{wikt-lang|el|φτερό}} for the wing or feather of a bird, but {{wikt-lang|el|πτέρυξ}} for the wing of a building or airplane or arm of an organisation.<ref name="pringpocket"/>{{rp|180}}{{rp|203}}

====Words and fixed expressions====
* {{wikt-lang|el|ενδιαφέρων}} (''interesting'')
* {{wikt-lang|el|τουλάχιστον}} (''at least'')
* {{wikt-lang|el|την}} {{wikt-lang|el|απήγαγε}} (''he abducted her''){{Clarification needed|reason=Is this a common idiom?|date=August 2024}}
* {{wikt-lang|el|είναι}} {{wikt-lang|el|γεγονός}} {{wikt-lang|el|ότι}} ... (''it is a fact that ...'')
* {{wikt-lang|el|προς}} {{wikt-lang|el|το}} {{wikt-lang|el|παρόν}} (''for now'')
*{{wikt-lang|el|νίπτω τας χείρας μου}} (figurative, ''I wash my hands'' [''of him, her, it'']); adapted from the Ancient Greek phrase describing [[Pontius Pilate]] washing his hands at [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 27:24; for actual hand-washing, the Demotic phrase is {{wikt-lang|el|πλένω}} {{wikt-lang|el|τα}} {{wikt-lang|el|χέρια}} {{wikt-lang|el|μου}}.<ref name="pringpocket">Pring, J.T. ''The Pocket Oxford Greek Dictionary.'' (New York: 1965 & 1982; 2000 ed.)</ref>{{rp|xii}}
Special dative forms:
* {{lang|el|δόξα τω Θεώ}} (''thank God'')
* {{lang|el|εν ονόματι ...}} (''in the name [of] ...'')
* {{lang|el|τοις μετρητοίς}} (''in cash'')
* {{lang|el|εν συνεχεία}} (''following'')
* {{lang|el|εν τω μεταξύ}} (''meanwhile'')
* {{lang|el|εν αγνοία}} (''in ignorance [of]'')
* {{lang|el|συν τοις άλλοις}} (''moreover'')
* {{lang|el|επί τω έργω}} (''working'', literally ''on the deed'')
* {{lang|el|τοις εκατό}} (''percent'', literally ''in a hundred'')
* {{lang|el|ιδίοις χερσί}} (''with [one's] own hands'')

====Grammatical (morphological) features====
* Adjectives ending in {{lang|el|-ων}}, {{lang|el|-ουσα}}, {{lang|el|-ον}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ενδιαφέρων}} ''interesting'') or in {{lang|el|-ων}}, {{lang|el|-ων}}, {{lang|el|-ον}} (e.g. {{lang|el|σώφρων}} ''thoughtful'') - mostly in written language.
* Declinable [[aorist]] participle, e.g. {{lang|el|παραδώσας}} (''having delivered''), {{lang|el|γεννηθείς}} (''[having been] born'') - mostly in written language.
* Reduplication in the perfect. E.g. {{lang|el|προσ'''κε'''κλημένος}} (''invited''), {{lang|el|'''πε'''παλαιωμένος}} (''obsolete'')

====Phonological features====
Modern Greek features many letter combinations that were avoided in traditional Demotic:
* {{lang|el|-πτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|'''πτ'''αίσμα}} "misdemeanor"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-φτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|'''φτ'''αίω}} "to err; to be guilty")
* {{lang|el|-κτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|'''κτ'''ίσμα}} "building, structure"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-χτ-}} [e.g. {{lang|el|'''χτ'''ίστης}} "(stone)mason"]
* {{lang|el|-ευδ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ψ'''εύδ'''ος}} "falsity, lie"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-ευτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ψ'''εύτ'''ης}} "liar")
* {{lang|el|-σθ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ηρκέ'''σθ'''ην}} / {{lang|el|αρκέ'''σθ'''ηκα}} "I was sufficed / satisfied"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-στ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|αρκέ'''στ'''ηκα}})
* {{lang|el|-χθ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|(ε)'''χθ'''ές}} "yesterday"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-χτ-}} [e.g. {{lang|el|(ε)'''χτ'''ές}}]
* etc.

Native Greek speakers, depending upon their level of education, may often make mistakes in these "educated" aspects of their language; one can often see mistakes like {{lang|el|προήχθη}} instead of {{lang|el|προήχθην}} (''I've been promoted''), {{lang|el|λόγου του ότι/λόγο το ότι}} instead of {{lang|el|λόγω του ότι}} (''{{not a typo|due to the fact that}}''), {{lang|el|τον ενδιαφέρον άνθρωπο}} instead of {{lang|el|τον ενδιαφέροντα άνθρωπο}} (''the interesting person''), {{lang|el|οι ενδιαφέροντες γυναίκες}} instead of {{lang|el|οι ενδιαφέρουσες γυναίκες}} (''the interesting women''), {{lang|el|ο ψήφος}} instead of {{lang|el|η ψήφος}} (''the vote''). {{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

==Radical demoticism==
One of the most radical proponents of a language that was to be cleansed of all "educated" elements was [[Ioannis Psycharis|Giannis Psycharis]], who lived in France and gained fame through his work ''My Voyage'' (''{{lang|el|Το ταξίδι μου}}'', 1888). Not only did Psycharis propagate the exclusive use of the naturally grown colloquial language, but he actually opted for simplifying the morphology of [[Katharevousa]] forms [[linguistic prescription|prescription]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

For instance, Psycharis proposed changing the form of the neuter noun "light" ''{{lang|el|το φως}}'' (gen. ''{{lang|el|του φωτός}}'') into ''{{lang|el|το φώτο}}'' (gen. ''{{lang|el|του φώτου}}''). Such radical forms had occasional precedent in Renaissance attempts to write in Demotic, and reflected Psycharis' linguistic training as a [[Neogrammarian]], mistrusting the possibility of exceptions in linguistic evolution. Moreover, Psycharis also advocated spelling reform, which would have meant abolishing most of the six different ways to write the vowel [[Close front unrounded vowel|/i/]] and all instances of double consonants. Therefore, he wrote his own name as {{lang|el|Γιάνης}}, instead of {{lang|el|Γιάννης}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

As written and spoken Demotic became standardized over the next few decades, many compromises were made with [[Katharevousa]] (as is reflected in contemporary [[Standard Modern Greek|standard Greek]]) despite the loud objections of Psycharis and the radical "psycharist" ({{lang|el|ψυχαρικοί}}) camp within the proponents of Demotic's use. Eventually these ideas of radical demoticism were largely marginalized and when a standardized Demotic was made the official language of the Greek state in 1976, the legislation stated that it would be used "without dialectal and extremist forms"—an explicit rejection of Psycharis' ideals.<ref name= "demoticlaw">{{ cite Greek law | law = 309 | art= 2 | clause=2 | date = 30 April 1976 | en = Concerning the organisation and administration of General Education | el = Περὶ ὀργανώσεως καὶ διοικήσεως τῆς Γενικῆς Ἐκπαιδεύσεως. | url = https://search.et.gr/el/fek/?fekId=687982}}
{{blockquote |{{lang|el|Ὡς Νεοελληνικὴ γλῶσσα νοεῖται ἡ διαμορφωθεῖσα εἰς πανελλήνιον ἐκφραστικὸν ὄργανον ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ Λαοῦ καὶ τῶν δοκίμων συγγραφέων τοῦ Ἔθνους Δημοτική, συντεταγμένη, ἄνευ ἰδιωματισμῶν καὶ ἀκροτήτων.}}
<br>"Modern Greek language means the Demotic shaped into a pan-Hellenic instrument of expression by the Greek People and the esteemed writers of the Nation, coherent, without peculiar and extreme forms."}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Greek language}}

[[Category:Languages attested from the 19th century]]
[[Category:Varieties of Modern Greek]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
[[Category:Standard languages|Greek]]