Template:Short description Template:About Template:Featured article Template:Use American English Template:Use mdy dates Template:Infobox building
The Singer Building (also known as the Singer Tower)Template:Efn was an office building and early skyscraper at the northwestern corner of Liberty Street and Broadway in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City. Serving as the headquarters of the Singer Manufacturing Company, it was commissioned by the company's leader Frederick Gilbert Bourne and designed by architect Ernest Flagg in multiple phases from 1897 to 1908. The building's architecture contained elements of the Beaux-Arts and French Second Empire styles.
The building was composed of four distinct sections. The original 10-story Singer Building at 149 Broadway was erected between 1897 and 1898, and the adjoining 14-story Bourne Building on Liberty Street was built from 1898 to 1899. In the first decade of the 20th century, the two buildings were expanded to form the 14-story base of the Singer Tower, which rose another 27 stories. The facade was made of brick, stone, and terracotta. A dome with a lantern capped the tower. The foundation of the tower was excavated using caissons; the building's base rested on shallower foundations. The Singer Building used a steel frame, though load-bearing walls initially supported the original structure before modification. When completed, the 41-story building had a marble-clad entrance lobby, 16 elevators, Template:Convert of office space, and an observation deck.
With a roof height of Template:Convert, the Singer Tower was the tallest building in the world from 1908 to 1909, when it was surpassed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower. The base occupied the building's entire land lot; the tower's floors took up just one-sixth of that area. Despite being regarded as a city icon, the Singer Building was razed between 1967 and 1969 to make way for One Liberty Plaza, which had several times more office space than the Singer Tower. At the time of its destruction, the Singer Building was the tallest building ever to be demolished by its owners, a distinction it held until 270 Park Avenue was demolished in 2019.
ArchitectureEdit
The Singer Building was at the northwest corner of Liberty Street and Broadway in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, abutting the City Investing Building to the north.<ref name="nyt20120329">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="LC p. 355" /> The land lot was nearly rectangular, though slightly skewed due to the layout of the street grid,<ref name="OConnor 2016">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="HABS p. 92">Template:Harvnb</ref> and measured Template:Convert on Broadway by Template:Convert on Liberty Street.<ref name="HABS p. 92" /> The structure, as completed in 1908, was composed of four distinct sections:<ref name="AF p. 118">Template:Harvnb</ref> the original Singer and Bourne buildings, an annex next to both buildings, and the tower. All of these structures were designed by Ernest Flagg for Frederick Bourne, who led the Singer Manufacturing Company.<ref name="nyt20050102">Template:Note labelTemplate:Cite news</ref><ref name="NYCL-1100">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The structure was designed with elements of the Beaux-Arts style<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> and the French Second Empire style.<ref name="Pile 2005 p. 310">Template:Harvnb</ref> American architect George W. Conable prepared plans and working drawings.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> An architectural office with an engineering department led by Otto F. Semsch,<ref name="LC p. 355" /><ref name="nyt19680327">Template:Cite news</ref> and mechanical equipment engineer consultants Charles G. Armstrong and steel engineers Boller & Hodge, oversaw construction.<ref name="LC p. 355" /> Over 40 other companies were involved in the construction process,<ref name="LC p. 355" /> and nearly 100 construction contracts were awarded. There were no general contractors on the project; the owners communicated directly with the suppliers responsible for each contract.<ref name="Ripley p. 9461">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="HABS p. 88">Template:Harvnb</ref>
When the tower addition was completed in 1908, its roof was Template:Convert high.<ref name="ABM p. 429">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/><ref name="PA p. 170">Template:Harvnb</ref> The tower was topped by a Template:Convert flagpole, giving it a ground-to-pinnacle height of Template:Convert.<ref name="SkyscraperCenter">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Singer Building was the world's tallest building at the time of its completion and the world's tallest building to be destroyed upon its demolition.<ref name="nyt20130617" /> Contemporary sources at the time of the building's construction described the "Singer Tower" as referring only to the building's tower portion, rather than its base. The "Singer Building" name originally referred only to a portion of the base, although by the mid–20th century it referred to the entire structure.<ref name="Semsch p. 9" /><ref name="HABS p. 89">Template:Harvnb</ref>
FormEdit
The base of the building filled the entire lot. It was composed of the 10-story original structure (later expanded to 14 stories) and the 14-story annex known as the Bourne Building.<ref name="LC p. 355" /> The original Singer Building, on the southeastern portion of the lot, had a frontage of Template:Convert on Broadway and Template:Convert on Liberty Street. The Bourne Building, on the southwestern portion, was 58 feet deep and had a frontage of approximately Template:Convert on Liberty Street.<ref name="Semsch p. 10">Template:Harvnb</ref> From 1906 to 1907, the original Singer Building was extended northward and the Bourne Building was extended westward.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The original Singer and Bourne buildings were about Template:Convert tall.<ref name="nyt19070825">Template:Cite news</ref>
The 41-story tower above the northwest corner of the base was square in plan, with floor dimensions of Template:Convert.<ref name="LC p. 355" /><ref name="HABS p. 92" /><ref name="ABM p. 429" /> When the dome and lantern at the tower's pinnacle were included, the Singer Tower was the equivalent of a 47-story building.<ref name="LC p. 355" /><ref name="Ripley p. 9459" /> The tower was set back Template:Convert behind the base's frontage on Broadway,<ref name="LC p. 355" /><ref name="HABS p. 92" /> and it filled only one-sixth of the total lot area.<ref name="Ripley p. 9459">Template:Harvnb</ref> There was a gap of Template:Convert between the Singer Building's tower and the City Investing Building immediately to the north, which was built during the same time. The columns required to support the Singer Tower would have been too large to place atop the original Singer Building, so they were instead built in the northern portion of the lot.<ref name="nyt20120329" /> The tower had a height-to-width ratio of 7:1, setting a record at the time of its completion.<ref name="AF 1967-08" /><ref name="Stern (1995) p. 1126">Template:Harvnb</ref>
FacadeEdit
The facade was made of red brick, light-colored stone, and terracotta.<ref name="OConnor 2016" /> Some Template:Convert of terracotta was used for both the facade and the interior partitions. About five million bricks were used in the entire project, including one million in the tower section.<ref name="sun19080628">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Semsch p. 35">Template:Harvnb</ref> About Template:Convert of North River bluestone was also used,<ref name="Semsch p. 35" /> as was Template:Convert of limestone, mainly above the 33rd floor.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The contractors for these materials included John B. Rose Company for the brick; Martin P. Lodge for the bluestone; J. J. Spurr & Sons for the limestone; and New Jersey Terra Cotta for the terracotta.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
For decorative elements, Template:Convert of sheet copper was used.<ref name="sun19080628" /> Whale Creek Iron Works provided ornamental iron while Jno. Williams Inc. provided the ornamental bronze.<ref name="HABS p. 89" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> There were Template:Convert of glass in the entire building, about 10Template:Nbsppercent of which was interior glass.<ref name="sun19080628" /><ref name="Semsch pp. 44-45">Template:Harvnb</ref> There was extensive ornamentation throughout the building, including eight arches atop the tower's exterior.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
BaseEdit
The original Singer Building was faced with stone and brick. When it was built, the plans called for the lowest two stories to be clad with stone. The third story contained a balcony extending along both facades. The four following stories were faced with brick and contained windows with stone surrounds. The seventh story was clad with stone and had a balcony doubling as a cornice, while the facade on the eighth story was made of brick. The original top stories comprised a decorative copper-and-slate roof with dormers and stone chimneys. The main entrance was on Liberty Street and had sculptures and ornament.<ref name="nyt18970110">Template:Cite news</ref> The Bourne Building was faced with Indiana Limestone on its lowest two stories and red brick above.<ref name="rer18981203">Template:Cite magazine</ref> The base had ironwork ornamentation in their mullions and window railings.<ref name="Semsch p. 33">Template:Harvnb</ref>
After the 1906–1907 modifications, the main entrance faced Broadway on the eastern facade. This main entrance had a three-story-tall semicircular arch. A two-story architrave was beneath the arch, with an engraved cartouche reading "Singer" at the center. The upper part of the arch had a fanlight with five vertical mullions, below which was a bronze grille measuring Template:Convert wide and Template:Convert tall.<ref name="HABS p. 93">Template:Harvnb</ref>
As a result of the modifications, the first three stories were faced with rusticated North River bluestone.<ref name="HABS p. 92" /> Four stories were added between the seventh floor and the three-story roof during that time, and the Broadway facade was expanded from two bays to five.<ref name="HABS p. 89" /><ref name="rer19070629">Template:Cite magazine</ref> With the modifications, the vertical bays were separated with vertical strips from the fourth to the 10th floors, with pediments above the sixth-floor windows. The 11th and 12th floors of the modified base consisted of two rows of small windows, with the 11th-floor windows spaced between brackets supporting a 12th-floor iron balcony. The top two stories contained dormer windows projecting from the mansard roof.<ref name="HABS p. 93" /> The sloped portions of the roof were clad with slate shingles, while glazed roof tiles covered the flat portion.<ref name="HABS p. 94" />
TowerEdit
The Singer Tower's facade was made of brick masonry ranging in thickness from Template:Convert at the top to Template:Convert at the base.<ref name="Semsch p. 36">Template:Harvnb</ref> The Singer Tower contained five bays on each side, each measuring Template:Convert wide.<ref name="LC p. 358">Template:Harvnb</ref> Construction plans show that there were 36 windows on each floor.<ref name="nyt19070825" /> The faces of the tower were made of dark red brick, except for decorative elements such as trimmings, copings, courses, and windowsills, which were made of North River bluestone.<ref name="LC p. 359" /> On each side, vertical limestone piers separated the outermost bays from the three center bays, dividing the facade into three vertical sections.<ref name="NYCL-1100" /><ref name="LC p. 359" /> The outermost bays were illuminated by small windows.<ref name="NYCL-1100" /><ref name="AF p. 120">Template:Harvnb</ref> The corners of the tower were made of solid masonry, which concealed the diagonal steel bracing inside.<ref name="AF 1967-08">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="AF p. 120" /> The tower had cast-iron balconies and fascias, as well as wrought-iron jambs and mullions.<ref name="PA p. 170" /> The use of iron balconies, as well as the large amount of glass in the facade, was inspired by the design of the Little Singer Building at 561 Broadway, built in 1904.<ref name="AF p. 117">Template:Harvnb</ref>
Horizontal belt courses wrapped around the tower above the 17th, 18th, 23rd, 24th, 29th, and 30th stories, while there were terracotta balconies on each side at the 18th, 24th, and 30th stories.<ref name="HABS p. 92" /> Iron balconies also projected from the building at intervals of seven stories.<ref name="Semsch p. 33" /><ref name="LC p. 359" /> Near the top of the tower, the vertical stone bands on each side formed a tall arch evocative of the tower's dome.<ref name="LC p. 360" /> On the 36th floor, an ornamental balcony cantilevered about Template:Convert outward on each side;<ref name="Semsch p. 202" /> it was supported by brackets on the 35th floor.<ref name="nyt19070825" /><ref name="HABS p. 94">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="ER p. 630">Template:Harvnb</ref> Stone architraves surrounded the corner windows of the 36th and 37th stories, while ornate stone arches framed the center bays on the 36th through 38th stories. There were oval windows on each corner at the 38th floor. Above that level, a heavy stone cornice ran around the corners and above the arches.<ref name="HABS p. 94" />
The top of the tower contained a Template:Convert dome covering the top three stories,<ref name="HABS p. 92" /><ref name="Semsch p. 202">Template:Harvnb</ref> capped by a lantern that measures Template:Convert across at its base<ref name="Semsch p. 202" /> and stretches Template:Convert tall.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The dome's roof was made of slate, while the roof ornamentation, dormers, and lantern were made of copper sheeting.<ref name="LC p. 360">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Semsch p. 41">Template:Harvnb</ref> In its final years, the dome's trapezoidal skylights were replaced with dormer windows.<ref name="HABS p. 94" /> The top of the lantern was Template:Convert above ground level, and a steel flagpole rose Template:Convert above the lantern, bringing the height of the Singer Tower to Template:Convert when measured from ground to tip.<ref name="Semsch p. 33" /><ref name="ABM p. 434">Template:Harvnb</ref> The flagpole was actually Template:Convert long, but the base of the flagpole was embedded into the tower.<ref name="ABM p. 434" /> The entire exterior was lit at night by 1,600 incandescent lamps and thirty Template:Convert projectors,<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> which were visible at distances of up to Template:Convert.<ref name="sun19080628" />
Structural featuresEdit
SuperstructureEdit
Load-bearing walls initially supported the original Singer Building at 149 Broadway, while the Bourne Building annex at 85–89 Liberty Street had an internal steel skeleton.<ref name="LC p. 355" /> The original Singer Building was altered between 1906 and 1908 to use a steel skeleton.<ref name="Semsch p. 32" /> The entire building used 850 steel columns.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The columns were generally constructed in two-story segments.<ref name="Semsch p. 32" /> One- to three-story-tall column segments were used on the basements, first floor, and 14th through 16th floors.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Rafters supported the mansard roof of the base, excluding the tower.<ref name="ER p. 602">Template:Harvnb</ref> Milliken Brothers Inc. was the structural steel supplier for the project.<ref name="HABS p. 88" /><ref name="Semsch p. 202" />
The Singer Tower addition of 1906–1908 had a steel skeleton and weighed Template:Convert.<ref name="LC p. 358" /> The tower's columns were spaced Template:Convert apart on their centers.<ref name="ABM p. 429" /> Because the three center bays on each side contained windows, only the corners used diagonal bracing and, as such, were treated as square prisms.<ref name="ER p. 602" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Inside, there was another structure for the central elevator shafts, which were connected to the corners of the tower via longitudinal beams.<ref name="nyt19070825" /><ref name="LC p. 359">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> A girder supported the columns at the tower's corners at the fourth floor, while 36 columns rose from the basement into the tower.<ref name="Semsch p. 202" /><ref name="ER pp. 542–543">Template:Harvnb</ref> Four pillars were placed at each corner of the tower and six more pillars were placed in the elevator shafts.<ref name="nyt19070825" /><ref name="ER pp. 542–543" /> Each truss extended upward for two stories, causing the columns and braces to act as wind-resistant cantilevers.<ref name="nyt19070825" /><ref name="ER p. 602" /> The braces on the north and south contained 11 panels each while those on the east and west contained 10 panels.<ref name="nyt19070825" /> The four columns at the center of the tower supported its dome.<ref name="Semsch p. 202" /><ref name="ER p. 543">Template:Harvnb</ref>
The superstructure was erected using two boom derricks. One of them, with a capacity of Template:Convert, a Template:Convert mast, and a Template:Convert boom, lifted the steel beams from ground level to a 17th-story platform. The other was installed on the 17th floor and had a capacity of Template:Convert; this derrick erected the tower's steel.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Semsch p. 28" /> Generally, it took less than five minutes to transfer the steel from ground level to the superstructure.<ref name="Semsch p. 28">Template:Harvnb</ref> German steel was used in the Singer Tower's framing because of Flagg's belief that German workmanship was better than that of Americans.<ref name="LC p. 359" /><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The tower's superstructure was intended to withstand wind pressure of Template:Convert,<ref name="ER p. 543" /><ref name="rer19070427" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> even though the highest recorded wind pressure in the neighborhood was less than Template:Convert at the time of the Singer Building's construction.<ref name="rer19070427">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Ripley p. 9460">Template:Harvnb</ref>
The internal structure also used Template:Convert of Portland cement and Template:Convert of concrete subflooring.<ref name="Semsch pp. 44-45" /> The Singer Building's floors generally used terracotta flat arches Template:Convert deep, and many of the internal partitions also used terracotta blocks.<ref name="Semsch p. 36" />
FoundationEdit
The underlying layer of bedrock extended as deep as Template:Convert, above which were layers of quicksand, hardpan, rocks, clay, and soil. The groundwater level was Template:Convert below the Singer Building.<ref name="LC p. 357">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="ER p. 116">Template:Harvnb</ref> The ground composition under the lot varied significantly, as the hardpan was compact in some places and loose in others.<ref name="Semsch p. 12">Template:Harvnb</ref> Below the groundwater level, the saturation of the ground made it unfeasible to dig the cellar conventionally.<ref name="Ripley p. 9460" /> The Foundation Company excavated the tower's foundation<ref name="HABS p. 88" /><ref name="Semsch p. 12" /> using pneumatic caissons.Template:Efn The caissons were used to extract the underlying soil, then filled with concrete to create piers.<ref name="Ripley p. 9460" /><ref name="ER p. 116" /><ref name="Semsch p. 13">Template:Harvnb</ref>
Each caisson pier was designed to carry Template:Convert.<ref name="LC p. 358" /> A gridiron of steel girders was placed atop the caisson piers.<ref name="ABM p. 432">Template:Harvnb</ref> Because of the design of the tower addition's wind-bracing superstructure, the upward pull on some of the piers was greater than the dead load these piers carried. As a result, eyebars of different lengths were embedded in 10 of the caissons, the concrete being poured onto the eyebars.<ref name="ER p. 543" /><ref name="rer19070427" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The rods were embedded Template:Convert into the caisson piers. The system, devised in house by Flagg's office, was more than twice as expensive as a conventional foundation would have cost for a building of the Singer Tower's size.<ref name="LC p. 358" /><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The original plan was for the caissons to be sunk only Template:Convert deep, but the builders changed plans midway through the excavations, so that the caissons would go to hardpan.<ref name="Semsch p. 13" />
The original portions of the building were built on grillages Template:Convert below the sidewalk level.<ref name="Semsch p. 12" /> These foundations were strengthened when the tower was added.<ref name="rer19070629" /> The total weight of the Singer Building, including the tower addition, was carried by 54 steel columns atop the concrete foundation piers.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
InteriorEdit
The Singer Building was intended to be fireproof, and the tower section used mostly concrete floors, with wood used in some doors, windows, railings and decorative elements.<ref name="Semsch p. 40" /><ref name="HABS p. 95">Template:Harvnb</ref> The base used more wood than the tower, mainly in the floors, windows, and doors.<ref name="Semsch p. 40">Template:Harvnb</ref> All the building's stairs were made of cast iron.<ref name="PA p. 170" /><ref name="Semsch p. 33" /> The interior trim in the Singer Building was made of metal painted to resemble wood, including in the doors. Actual wooden furniture was used in the Singer Company's main offices on the 34th floor.<ref name="HABS p. 95" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> There were also ornamental plaster features executed by H. W. Miller Inc.<ref name="HABS p. 89" /><ref name="Semsch p. 68" /> Plaster was used extensively for the walls and ceilings.<ref name="HABS p. 95" /> The usable office space in the building totaled Template:Convert.<ref name="ABM p. 429" />
The Singer Building took water from the New York City water supply system, where it was filtered through ammonia coils and then through two filters into two suction tanks.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Inside the Singer Building, there were seven water tanks to serve a projected demand of Template:Convert each hour. Three tanks on the Singer Tower's 29th, 39th, and 42nd floors had a combined capacity of 15,000 gallons and served several portions of the tower. To provide water to the base, there was one tank of Template:Convert in the Bourne Building and three tanks of a combined Template:Convert in the original Singer Building.<ref name="nyt19070825" /><ref name="Semsch pp. 57-58">Template:Harvnb</ref> This allowed all the offices in the tower portion to be provided with cold, hot, and ice water.<ref name="Semsch pp. 57-58" /> Two heaters in the basement provided heated water to the entire building. There was also a refrigeration plant with two pumps and a small freezing system capable of producing Template:Convert of ice daily.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
The Singer Building contained a vacuum steam system, although the ground-floor lobby and the basement vaults were heated by an indirect-steam system. Heating came from steel radiators on each floor; the radiators in the ground-floor banking rooms and the Singer Company's 33rd and 34th floor offices were enclosed within ornamental screens.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> About 1,600 steam radiators were installed throughout the building.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> As well as providing heat, the building's boilers also provided electric power to the entire building.<ref name="Semsch p. 87">Template:Harvnb</ref> Initially, the Bourne and original Singer buildings had boilers aggregating Template:Convert and power generators with a capacity of Template:Convert.<ref name="Semsch pp. 80–81" /> With the 1906–1908 addition, boilers aggregating Template:Convert were installed,<ref name="ABM p. 434" /><ref name="Semsch p. 87" /> and generators with a capacity of Template:Convert were added, replacing the old ones. A steel smokestack at the northwest corner of the building was shared with the City Investing Building to the north.<ref name="Semsch pp. 80–81">Template:Harvnb</ref>
LobbyEdit
The lobby, accessed from Broadway,<ref name="HABS p. 94" /> was finished with Pavonazzo marble and had Template:Convert of bronze work.<ref name="nyht19391114">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Semsch p. 54">Template:Harvnb</ref> New York Times architectural writer Christopher Gray characterized the lobby as exuding "celestial radiance".<ref name="nyt20050102" /> Two rows of eight square marble piers trimmed with bronze beading supported the lobby ceiling.<ref name="LC p. 360" /><ref name="HABS p. 95" /><ref name="Semsch p. 54" /> Each pier was made of Pavonazzo marble and had a border of Montarenti Sienna marble.<ref name="PA p. 170" /> There were large bronze medallions atop each pier, depicting either the Singer Company's monogram or a needle, thread, and bobbin.<ref name="nyt20050102" /><ref name="LC p. 360" /><ref name="Semsch p. 54" /> At the tops of the piers were decorative pendentives,<ref name="Semsch p. 54" /> which supported glazed plaster domes above.<ref name="Semsch p. 68">Template:Harvnb</ref> The pendentives were ornately decorated with gold leaf.<ref name="Semsch p. 72">Template:Harvnb</ref> The domes' drums originally contained flat, circular amber glass lights in steel frames, which were later replaced with modern glass lighting fixtures.<ref name="HABS p. 95" />
Immediately outside the entrance, on either side of the lobby, were stairs leading up to a balcony and down to the basement,<ref name="HABS p. 94" /><ref name="Semsch p. 114">Template:Harvnb</ref> while the south wall contained stairs to the original Singer Building.<ref name="HABS p. 95" /><ref name="Semsch p. 114" /> The stairs were made of cast iron and wrought iron, and the handrails and newel posts were made of bronze.<ref name="PA p. 170" /> The elevators were clustered on the northern wall, opposite the stairs to the original Singer Building.<ref name="HABS p. 94" /><ref name="Semsch p. 114" /><ref name="LC p. 361">Template:Harvnb</ref> Each of the elevator doors in the lobby were made of four bronze leaves.<ref name="PA p. 170" /> A balcony, trimmed with bronze, overlooked the lobby.<ref name="Semsch p. 54" /> There were Italian marble stairs at the rear of the lobby which split into two flights connecting to either portion of the balcony.<ref name="HABS p. 95" /><ref name="Semsch p. 54" /> A master clock on the central landing of the rear stairs controlled all the clocks in the building.<ref name="HABS p. 95" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The lobby was a popular spot for meetings.<ref name="Stern (1995) p. 1126" />
There were also two secondary entrances on Liberty Street—one to the original Singer Building and one to the Bourne Building. Both secondary entrances connected to the main lobby to the north. There was retail space on the ground floor as well.<ref name="LC p. 361" />
BasementEdit
The boiler room and mechanical plant were in the basement, and consisted of five boilers and five generators.<ref name="Semsch pp. 80–81" /> The boilers were clustered under the western portion of the building, while an engine room was in the center. A pump room and machine room were in the southeastern corner, with a chief engineer's office, electrician's room, and waste paper room. A compressor room was at the northeastern corner.<ref name="Semsch pp. 84–85" />
From the basement, a corridor extended east to the safe deposit vaults.<ref name="Semsch pp. 84–85">Template:Harvnb</ref> There were 10 vaults used by the Safe Deposit Company of New York, within a space of Template:Convert. The vaults each contained several thousand safe deposit boxes, and the vault walls were formed of several layers of steel. The door to the largest vault weighed over Template:Convert. The vaults abutted three committee rooms for the company.<ref name="Semsch p. 112">Template:Harvnb</ref>
Other floorsEdit
The 2nd through 13th floors contained offices flanking a T-shaped corridor facing away from the elevators.<ref name="HABS p. 95" /> The ceilings of these story were generally painted in white watercolor while the walls were light tan.<ref name="Semsch p. 72" /> In addition, these stories contained oak trim, partitions, and decorative moldings.<ref name="PA p. 170" /> The average story at the base contained 40 offices.<ref name="ABM p. 429" />
The tower stories contained a U-shaped layout surrounding the elevators in the center of the building, with emergency stairs in the tower's core. In the Singer Building's tower, there were very few partitions, except for elevators and restrooms.<ref name="HABS p. 95" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The average floor in the tower contained 16 offices.<ref name="ABM p. 429" /><ref name="nyt19070825" /> On these stories, the ceilings were painted ivory,<ref name="Semsch p. 72" /> the walls were olive green,<ref name="PA p. 170" /><ref name="Semsch p. 72" /> and the metal trim was painted to resemble wood grain.<ref name="PA p. 170" /> The Singer Company's main offices, on the 33rd through 35th floors, had a plethora of ornamental plaster.<ref name="Semsch p. 68" />
The highest publicly accessible point in the Singer Building was Template:Convert above the curb, at the lantern balcony.<ref name="ER p. 630" /> When the observation deck opened on June 23, 1908,<ref name="tribune19080624">Template:Cite news</ref> visitors paid $0.50 (Template:Inflation) to use the observation area at the top of the building. From this observation deck, visitors could see as far as Template:Convert away.<ref name="LC p. 3542">Template:Harvnb</ref> After two people jumped from the deck and died, the Singer Tower was nicknamed "Suicide Pinnacle", and its deck was closed by the 1930s.<ref name="nyht19391114" /> From the observation deck, a series of steep ladders and stairs led to the lantern.<ref name="Semsch p. 41" />
ElevatorsEdit
There were 15 Otis electric traction elevators in the completed building,<ref name="courier19070324">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> and one electric-drum elevator, for a total of 16 elevators.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Semsch p. 46">Template:Harvnb</ref> The tower portion had nine elevators, eight of which ran from the lobby.<ref name="Ripley p. 9461" /> Four were "local" elevators making all stops between the lobby and the 13th floor; two of these continued down to the basement. Four "express" elevators ran from the lobby to the upper floors; three of them terminated at the 35th floor and the fourth at the 40th floor. Another "shuttle" elevator served only the 35th through 38th floors.<ref name="Ripley p. 9461" /><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The elevators could carry loads of up to Template:Convert and could travel from the lobby to the top floor at Template:Convert, faster than any other elevator then in existence.<ref name="courier19070324" /><ref name="Semsch p. 46" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
The base had seven elevators: four in the Bourne Building and three in the original Singer Building. Two of the elevators in the base, one each in the Bourne and original Singer buildings, served all floors from the basement to the roof. The other five ran only from the first floor to the 14th floor.<ref name="Semsch p. 46" /> The original Singer Building's elevators were in a single group on the southeastern side of the building, while the Bourne Building's elevators were in two pairs opposite each other.<ref name="Semsch p. 114" /> The building's managers hired female elevator operators, whom they characterized as "businesslike in appearance and polite in manner", as opposed to the "slovenly male operator with the ever-ready 'back talk'".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The cabs also had telephones, with which the elevator operators and starters could communicate.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Semsch pp. 49–50">Template:Harvnb</ref>
HistoryEdit
During the late 19th century, New York City trailed Chicago in the development of early skyscrapers; New York had just four buildings over 16 stories tall in 1893, compared to twelve such buildings in Chicago.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Part of the delay was caused by New York City authorities, who until 1889 would not allow metal-frame construction techniques.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Skyscraper development in New York City changed in 1895 with the construction of the American Surety Building, a 20-story, Template:Convert development that broke Chicago's height record. From then on, New York thoroughly embraced skeleton frame construction.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The early years of the 20th century saw a range of technically sophisticated, architecturally confident skyscrapers built in New York; academics Sarah Landau and Carl Condit term this "the first great age" of skyscraper development.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Isaac M. Singer and Edward C. Clark had founded I. M. Singer & Company in 1851. The company, which manufactured sewing equipment, became the Singer Manufacturing Company in 1865.<ref name="Gale Group Jorgensen 1994 p.">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Meighan 2012 p. 119">Template:Harvnb</ref> The Singer Manufacturing Company was also involved in real estate during the latter half of the 19th century, Clark commissioning Henry Janeway Hardenbergh to design the Dakota and other New York City residential buildings in the 1880s. By the following decade, at the behest of Clark's son Alfred Corning Clark, the Singer Company was instead working with Ernest Flagg, then a recent graduate of the École des Beaux-Arts. Frederick Bourne, who had become the Singer Company's president in 1889, oversaw the firm's expansion into European markets during that time.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Original building and annexEdit
In February 1890, the Singer Manufacturing Company acquired the lot at 151–153 Broadway.<ref name="rer18900315">Template:Cite magazine</ref> The next month, they bought the lots at 149 Broadway and 83 Liberty Street, at the northwest corner of the two streets.<ref name="rer18900315" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The three lots had cost the company over $950,000 (Template:Inflation), and at the time were occupied by four- to six-story buildings.<ref name="rer18900315" /> The three lots were separate prior to the Singer Company's acquisition but, under their ownership, were combined.<ref name="HABS p. 87">Template:Harvnb</ref>
The Singer Manufacturing Company hired Ernest Flagg for the design of their new headquarters. Flagg filed plans for the new Singer Building at 149 Broadway in early 1897. They called for a 10-story stone-and-brick building with banking rooms on the lowest two stories, rental office space on six of the center stories, and the Singer Company's offices on the upper stories.<ref name="nyt18970110" /><ref name="rer19000428">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Construction began that year. While workers were excavating the site in June 1897, a water main burst and flooded the lot.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Despite this, the new Singer Building was completed in early 1898.<ref name="LC p. 355" /><ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
In December 1897, before the new Singer headquarters was completed, Bourne bought three five-story structures for the company at 85–89 Liberty Street, on a plot measuring Template:Convert.<ref name="rer19000428" /><ref name="nyt19000424">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Flagg was retained to design the 14-story Bourne Building on the site, and when he submitted building plans in 1898, the annex was estimated to cost $450,000.<ref name="rer18981203" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Bourne did not take title to the Bourne Building's site until September 1899,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the Bourne Building was completed the same year.<ref name="LC p. 355" /> By 1900, the Singer and Bourne buildings were both fully occupied.<ref name="rer19000428" /> The tenants included the law office of Augustus Van Wyck,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the Trust Company of America.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Boiler manufacturers Babcock & Wilcox were long-term tenants, occupying the Singer Building for more than forty years from the beginning of the 20th century.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
ExpansionEdit
Further acquisitions followed in the first decade of the 20th century. In 1900, Bourne bought an iron-front building at 155 and 157 Broadway, with a frontage of about Template:Convert on Broadway.<ref name="rer19000428" /><ref name="nyt19000424" /> The purchase of 163 Broadway, a house with a frontage of only Template:Convert, followed in 1902,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and in 1903 by the purchase of the five-story 93 Liberty Street, which added a frontage of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> By 1905, the Singer Company controlled most of the block along both Broadway and Liberty Street; the original Singer Building was an L-shaped structure extending west and then north from the northwestern corner of Broadway and Liberty Street.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Tower constructionEdit
Concurrently with the land acquisitions, Flagg was retained to design a second addition to the Singer Building in 1902. By early the next year, he was planning a building that would be the tallest in the world, with over 35 stories.<ref name="LC p. 355" /> However, the Singer Manufacturing Company did not reveal specific details until February 1906, when it announced that it would build a Template:Convert tower, the world's tallest.<ref name="LC p. 3542" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Revised plans were filed in July 1906, which provided for a more wind-resistant structure.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The company intended to occupy the space above the 31st floor and planned to rent out the bottom section of the tower to tenants to subsidize their use of the upper floors.<ref name="LC p. 355">Template:Harvnb</ref> The Singer Company projected that it would earn $250,000 in rent per year, given a baseline rental cost of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Engineers were hired to create the construction plans as soon as the architect's plans and specifications were published.<ref name="Semsch p. 30">Template:Harvnb</ref>
Before the foundations were built, the builders drilled several test boreholes to determine the composition of the underlying soil.<ref name="Ripley p. 9459" /><ref name="Semsch p. 12" /> Contracts for digging the foundation were awarded in August 1906 before the plans were approved.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The plans for the Singer Tower were approved on September 12, 1906,<ref name="Semsch p. 11">Template:Harvnb</ref> and excavation began later that month,<ref name="LC p. 357" /><ref name="ER p. 116" /><ref name="Semsch p. 11" /> with work officially beginning on September 19.<ref name="HABS p. 88" /><ref name="Semsch p. 11" /> A timber platform, measuring Template:Convert wide and descending from Broadway to the excavation site, was constructed so that workers could receive materials and extract soil more efficiently.<ref name="ER p. 116" /> The first steel shipments for the anchorages arrived in October 1906.<ref name="Semsch p. 30" /> Foundation work was completed on February 18, 1907.<ref name="Semsch p. 11" />
The superstructure was constructed afterward. A temporary elevator was installed while the tower's superstructure was being erected.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> During the construction process, city building inspectors alleged the builders had violated city law by installing concrete flooring instead of hollow-tile floors. As a result, the builders were ordered to replace some non-compliant arches.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> By August 1907, the steel frame had reached 36 stories, surpassing the Washington Monument's height.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> That month, Prince Wilhelm of Sweden visited the 29th floor to see the construction process.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On October 4, 1907, the building topped out with the hoisting of the flagpole.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> After the building topped out, the interiors were furnished and plastered.<ref name="Semsch p. 68" /> Despite high winds, there were no serious accidents during construction.<ref name="nyt19680327" /> There was a small fire on the 40th floor in February 1908, which the Los Angeles Times described at the time as "the highest fire in any building in the world".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Base expansionEdit
In late 1905, Flagg was hired to design a westward annex to the Bourne Building and a northward annex to the original Singer Building. The Bourne and Singer buildings were to be united internally, and the old Singer Building was to be expanded to 14 stories.<ref name="Semsch p. 10" /> The top story of the Bourne Building would also be expanded so that it would cover the same area as the Bourne Building's lower floors.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Plans for the Bourne and Singer extensions were filed in late 1906 and early 1907, respectively.<ref name="Semsch p. 11" />
During the construction of the Singer Tower, the original Singer Building was shored up and additional foundations were built.<ref name="rer19070629" /><ref name="Semsch p. 13" /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> The top three stories of the old Singer Building, including the mansard roof, were temporarily taken apart in June 1907, so that four more stories could be inserted above the existing seventh story. As such, the old eighth story of the old Singer Building became the new 12th story. This added Template:Convert of usable space without disturbing tenants on the lower floors.<ref name="rer19070629" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Several columns were erected at the old building's front and rear elevations, extending from the basement to the 11th floor to support the raised roof. Holes were created in the existing floors of the Singer Building so that they could be supported by steel columns instead of by the bearing walls.<ref name="Semsch p. 32" /> The old Singer Building was extended north by Template:Convert, the three extra bays on Broadway having the same style as the original two.<ref name="HABS p. 89" />
In the Bourne Building, the three existing elevators were removed and replaced with four elevators, necessitating the complete replacement of the framing around the old elevator shafts.<ref name="Semsch p. 32">Template:Harvnb</ref> A small window replaced the main entrance to the original Singer Building.<ref name="HABS p. 89" />
Completion and further useEdit
On May 1, 1908, the tower was opened to the public.<ref name="LC p. 357" /><ref name="Semsch p. 11" /> The construction workers held a dinner that week to celebrate the completion of work.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> A month later, on June 23, the observation balcony opened.<ref name="tribune19080624" /> The Singer Building quickly became a symbol of Manhattan with its floodlit tower.<ref name="nyt19680327" /> Surpassing Philadelphia City Hall in height, the Singer Building remained the tallest in the world for a year after its tower's completion.<ref name="Haughey 2018 p. 235">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="AF p. 118" /> The record was surpassed by the Template:Convert Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower,<ref name="nyt20050102" /><ref name="AF p. 118" /> at 24th Street and Madison Avenue.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Efn
In the building's first few months, the elevators were involved in at least two deaths; a painter was decapitated on May 4, 1908,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> while a plumber's assistant was crushed between an elevator cab and a shaft on July 24, 1908.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In a publicity stunt in 1911, the aviator Harry Atwood flew around the Singer Building.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The expanded building's tenants included the Chatham and Phenix National Bank, whose main office moved to the Singer Building in 1916.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Safe Deposit Company of New York originally used the vaults.<ref name="Semsch p. 112" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The power source for the building's steam plant was converted from coal to oil in 1921, making the Singer Building the city's first office building to use oil as a fuel.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In 1921, the Singer Company placed the building up for sale at an asking price of $10 million.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Four years later, the company made an agreement with a buyer representing the Utilities Power and Light Corporation, a holding company for several states' power companies. The transaction involved a cash deal of $8.5 million.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to property records, the sale was never finalized.<ref name="HABS p. 88" /> Also in 1925, a subbasement vault was dug for the Chatham and Phenix National Bank after the bank's merger with the Metropolitan Trust Company, and three of the lower floors were renovated for the bank's use.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The Singer Company made relatively few changes to the building; The New Yorker wrote that the firm was "wise enough to leave magnificence alone".<ref name="PA p. 170" /> Over the Singer Building's existence, its lighting system was changed at least five times.<ref name="HABS p. 89" /><ref name="PA p. 171">Template:Harvnb</ref> The copper ornamentation on the tower's dome was restored in 1939.<ref name="nyht19391114" /> The flagpole and roof cresting were removed entirely in early 1947.<ref name="HABS p. 89" /> The building experienced an electrical fire in 1949 that forced the evacuation of the entire building, although only one person was injured.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> To comply with modern building codes, automatic elevators were installed in either 1957<ref name="PA p. 171" /> or 1959.<ref name="HABS p. 89" /> In addition, some offices received air conditioning, though they retained their original thermostats.<ref name="PA p. 171" /> The revolving doors at the base had been removed by 1958, being replaced with standard doors. Toward the end of its existence, the Singer Building's two large ground-level storefronts were subdivided into smaller ones.<ref name="HABS p. 89" />
DemolitionEdit
Taller buildings continued to be constructed in New York City; by its 50th anniversary in 1958, the Singer Building was only the 16th tallest in the city.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 1961, Singer announced it would sell the structure and the company moved to 30 Rockefeller Plaza.<ref name="p1325841053">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> According to property records, Iacovone Rose bought the Singer Building and immediately sold it to Financial Place Inc.<ref name="HABS p. 88" /> Real estate developer William Zeckendorf acquired the building and attempted to convince the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) to move there.<ref name="Stern (1995) p. 1126" /><ref name="nyt19640319" /> The plans failed after the NYSE opted to expand its existing headquarters instead. Even so, the construction of the World Trade Center nearby in the mid-1960s caused real-estate values in Lower Manhattan to increase dramatically.<ref name="Stern (1995) p. 1126" /> In 1964, United States Steel bought the Singer and City Investing buildings.<ref name="nyt19640319">Template:Cite news</ref> U.S. Steel planned to demolish the entire block to erect a 50- or 54-story headquarters on the same site.<ref name="PA p. 171" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) was created in 1965,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> in the wake of several notable buildings in the city having either been demolished or threatened with demolition.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Although the Singer Building was considered to be one of the most iconic buildings in New York City,<ref name="nyt19670822" /> the LPC never considered designating it as a landmark, which would have prevented the building's demolition.<ref name="AF 1967-08" /> In August 1967, LPC executive director Alan Burnham said that, if the building were to have been made a landmark, the city would have to either find a buyer or acquire the building on its own.<ref name="nyt19670822">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Stern (1995) pp. 1126-1127">Template:Harvnb</ref> Sam Roberts later wrote in The New York Times that the Singer Building had been one of the city's notable structures that "weren't considered worth preserving".<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Demolition had commenced by September 1967,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> despite protests by Architectural Forum magazine and other preservationists, who suggested incorporating the lobby into the U.S. Steel Building.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Stern (1995) p. 1126" /> A writer for The New York Times observed in March 1968 that the lobby looked like "a bomb had hit it".<ref name="nyt19680327" /> The last piece of scrap had been carted away in early 1969, when the Daily News observed: "The Singer fell victim to a malady called progress."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The U.S. Steel Building (later known as One Liberty Plaza) was built on the site and completed in 1973.<ref name="LC p. 361" /> One Liberty Plaza contained Template:Convert per floor, compared with the Template:Convert per floor in the Singer Building's tower.<ref name="nyt20050102" /> One Liberty Plaza had at least twice the two former buildings' combined interior area.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> At the time of the Singer Building's demolition, it was the tallest building ever to be destroyed.<ref name="nyt20130617">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Stern (1995) p. 1126" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The record was surpassed during the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, which caused the collapse of the nearby World Trade Center.<ref name="OConnor 2016" /> The Singer Building remained the tallest building to be destroyed by its owners<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> until 2019, when workers started demolishing the Template:Convert 270 Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In the 21st century, the Singer Building became a subject of the unfounded Tartaria conspiracy theory, which claimed that the skyscraper was evidence of a long-lost civilization.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Bloomberg 2021">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ImpactEdit
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Flagg, a noted critic of existing skyscrapers, justified taking on the project as a way of generating support for skyscraper reform, by convincing the public that such tall skyscrapers were detrimental because they blocked light from reaching the surrounding streets.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> As late as 1904, one architectural magazine wrote that "ten stories were his limit".<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> According to Flagg, buildings over Template:Convert tall, or 10 to 15 stories, needed to have a setback tower occupying no more than a quarter of the lot.<ref name="Semsch p. 9">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="AF p. 120" /><ref name="HABS p. 87" /> He had once written, "Our rooms and offices are becoming so dark that we must use artificial light all day long."<ref name="nyt20120329" /> The Singer Building's design expressed Flagg's opinions on city planning and skyscraper design.<ref name="HABS p. 87" /> The building's design partly influenced the city's 1916 Zoning Resolution, which required many skyscrapers in New York City to have setbacks as they rose.<ref name="LC p. 361" /><ref name="PA p. 171" />
New York Times architectural critic Christopher Gray said in 2005 that the Singer Building's tower resembled "a bulbous mansard and giant lantern".<ref name="nyt20050102" /> Architectural writer Jason Barr stated in 2016 that the Singer Building was a "transitional building" in skyscraper development.<ref name="OConnor 2016" /> Landau and Condit described the building as "an aesthetic triumph that enriched the city by demonstrating the sculptural possibilities of the steel-framed skyscraper".<ref name="LC p. 361" /> Architectural Forum wrote in 1957 that the Singer Building was a "very coherent, virile piece of design".<ref name="AF p. 118" /> Just before the building's demolition, Architectural Forum wrote that the building was "distinguished for more than mere height".<ref name="AF 1967-08" /> Ada Louise Huxtable said, "The master never produced a more impressive ruin than the Singer Building under demolition."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Stern (1995) p. 1127">Template:Harvnb</ref> Conversely, The New York Globe in the 1900s had called the Singer Building an "architectural giraffe" and said such a tall building would hinder the ability of fire services to rescue people on the upper floors.<ref name="nyt19680327" />
See alsoEdit
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CitationsEdit
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