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Condottiero

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File:Bartolomeo Colleoni by Andrea del Verrocchio.jpg
The equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, Italy


Condottieri ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}; Template:Singular: condottiero or condottiere) were Italian military leaders during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The definition initially applied only to commanders of mercenary companies, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} originally meaning 'contractor' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} being the contract by which the condottieri put themselves in the service of a city or lord. In Italian, however, the term condottiero eventually became synonymous with 'commander' or 'military leader'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Lenman, B., Anderson, T. Chambers Dictionary of World History, p. 200</ref>

Mercenary captainsEdit

BackgroundEdit

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In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Italian city-states of Venice, Florence, and Genoa were very rich from their trade with the Levant, yet possessed woefully small armies. In the event that foreign powers and envious neighbours attacked, the ruling nobles hired foreign mercenaries to fight for them. The military-service terms and conditions were stipulated in a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (contract) between the city-state and the soldiers (officer and enlisted man), thus, the "contracted" leader, the mercenary captain commanding, was titled the "Condottiere".

From the eleventh to the thirteenth century, European soldiers led by professional officers fought against the Muslims in the Crusades (1095–1291). These crusading officers provided large-scale warfare combat experience in the Holy Land. At the Crusades' conclusion, the first {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (bands of roving soldiers; Template:Plural form: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) appeared in Italy. Given the profession, some {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were less mercenaries than bandits and desperate men. These {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were not Italian, but (mostly) Flemings, from the Duchy of Brabant (hence, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), and from Aragon. The latter were Spanish soldiers who had followed King Peter III of Aragon in the War of the Sicilian Vespers in Italy in October 1282, and, post-war, remained there, seeking military employment. By 1333 other mercenaries had arrived in Italy to fight with John of Bohemia as the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Company of the Dove) in Perugia's war against Arezzo. The first well-organised mercenaries in Italy were the Ventura Companies of Duke Werner von Urslingen and Count Konrad von Landau. Werner's company differed from other mercenary companies because its code of military justice imposed discipline and an equal division of the contract's income. The Ventura Company increased in number until becoming the fearsome "Great Company" of some 3,000 {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (each {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} comprised a knight and a sergeant).

RiseEdit

The first mercenary company with an Italian as its chief was the "Company of St. George" formed in 1339 and led by Lodrisio Visconti. This company was defeated and destroyed by Luchino Visconti of Milan (another condottiero and uncle of Lodrisio) in April 1339. Later, in 1377, a second "Company of St. George" was formed under the leadership of Alberico da Barbiano, also an Italian and the Count of Conio, who later taught military science to condottieri such as Braccio da Montone and Giacomuzzo Attendolo Sforza, who also served in the company.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Once aware of their military power monopoly in Italy, the condottieri bands became notorious for their capriciousness and soon dictated terms to their ostensible employers. In turn, many condottieri, such as Braccio da Montone and Muzio Sforza, became powerful politicians. As most were educated men acquainted with Roman military science manuals (e.g. Vegetius's Epitoma rei militarii), they began viewing warfare from the perspective of military science, rather than as a matter of valour or physical courage—a great, consequential departure from chivalry, the traditional medieval model of soldiering. Consequently, the condottieri fought by outmanoeuvring the opponent and fighting his ability to wage war, rather than risking uncertain fortune—defeat, capture, death—in battlefield combat.

File:Malpaga10.JPG
Detail of the frescoes, with soldiers

The earlier, medieval condottieri developed the "art of war" (military strategy and tactics) into military science more than any of their historical military predecessors—fighting indirectly, not directly—thus, only reluctantly endangering themselves and their enlisted men, avoiding battle when possible, also avoiding hard work and winter campaigns, as these all reduced the total number of trained soldiers available, and were detrimental to their political and economic interest.Template:Sfn Niccolò Machiavelli even said that condottieri fought each other in grandiose, but often pointless and near-bloodless battles. However, later in the Renaissance the condottieri line of battle still deployed the grand armoured knight and medieval weapons and tactics after most European powers had begun employing professional standing armies of pikemen and musketeers; this helped to contribute to their eventual decline and destruction.Template:Citation needed

In 1347, Cola di Rienzo (Tribune and effective dictator of the city) had Werner von Urslingen executed in Rome, and Konrad von Landau assumed command of the Great Company. On the conclusion (1360) of the Peace of Bretigny between England and France, Sir John Hawkwood led an army of English mercenaries, called the White Company, into Italy, which took a prominent part in the confused wars of the next thirty years. Towards the end of the century, the Italians began to organize armies of the same description. This ended the reign of the purely mercenary company and began that of the semi-national mercenary army which endured in Europe till replaced by the national standing army system. In 1363, Count von Landau was betrayed by his Hungarian soldiers, and defeated in combat, by the White Company's more advanced tactics under commanders Albert Sterz and John Hawkwood. Strategically, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was replaced with the three-soldier, mounted {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, a groom, and a boy); five {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} composed a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, five {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} composed a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (flag). By that time, the campaigning condottieri companies were as much Italian as foreign: the Astorre I Manfredi's {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Company of the Star); a new {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Company of St. George) under Ambrogio Visconti; Niccolò da Montefeltro's {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Little Hat Company); and the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Company of the Rose), commanded by Giovanni da Buscareto and Bartolomeo Gonzaga.

File:Ermanno Stroiffi - Portrait of a Condottiero.jpg
Portrait of a condottiero by Ermanno Stroiffi

From the 15th century hence, most condottieri were landless Italian nobles who had chosen the profession of arms as a livelihood; the most famous of such mercenary captains was the son of Caterina Sforza, Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, from Forlì, known as The Last Condottiere; his son was Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany; besides noblemen, princes also fought as condottieri, given the sizable income to their estates, notably Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini, and Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino; despite war-time inflation, soldier's pay was high:

The condottieri company commanders selected the soldiers to enlist; the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was a consolidated contract, and, when the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (service period) elapsed, the company entered an {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (wait) period, wherein the contracting city-state considered its renewal. If the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} expired definitively, the condottiere could not declare war against the contracting city-state for two years. This military–business custom was respected because professional reputation (business credibility) was everything to the condottieri; a deceived employer was a reputation ruined; likewise, for maritime mercenaries, whose {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Literally) stipulated naval military-service terms and conditions; sea captains and sailors so-contracted were called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Their principal employers were Genoa and the Papal States, beginning in the fourteenth century, yet Venice considered it humiliating to so employ military sailors, and did not use naval mercenaries, even during the greatest danger in the city's history.

In 15th-century Italy, the condottieri were masterful lords of war; during the wars in Lombardy, Machiavelli observed:

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In 1487, at Calliano, the Venetians successfully met and acquitted themselves against the German landsknechte and the Swiss infantry, the best soldiers in Europe at the time.

File:Bellini, Giovanni - Giovanni Emo - NGA.jpg
Bartolomeo d'Alviano, one of the condottieri who took part in the Battle of Garigliano (1503)

In 1494, the French king Charles VIII's royal army invaded the Italian Peninsula, initiating the Italian Wars. The most renowned condottieri fought in these conlicts. Since the mid-16th century, mercenary captains decline in importance. However, they continue to exist into the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. The political practice of hiring foreign mercenaries also did not end. For example, the Vatican's Swiss Guard are the modern remnants of a historically effective mercenary army.

ListEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:BartholomaeusColleoni1566-69.png
Bartolomeo Colleoni defeated the French at Bosco Marengo (1447).
File:Velazquez-The Surrender of Breda.jpg
Ambrogio Spinola, one of the last examples of the condottieri tradition
File:Farinata.jpg
Farinata degli Uberti by Andrea del Castagno, showing a 15th-century condottiero's typical attire

The following is a list of famous Italian mercenary captains:

Some of the most famous battles in which they were involved are :


Evolution of the termEdit

While the military service {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gradually disappeared, the term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} remained in use, denominating the great Italian generals fighting for European states, monarchs and Popes during the Italian wars and the European wars of religion.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Lenman, B., Anderson, T. Chambers Dictionary of World History, p. 200</ref> Men referred to as 'condottieri' in this sense include the Marquis of Pescara (1489–1525), the Marquis of Vasto (1502–1546), Ferrante Gonzaga (1507–1557), Marcantonio II Colonna (1535-1584), Alexander Farnese (1545-1592), Torquato Conti (1591–1636), Ambrogio Spinola (1569–1630), Ottavio Piccolomini (1599–1656), Raimondo Montecuccoli (1609–1680) and many others. Therefore, in Italian, the term 'condottiero' eventually became synonymous with 'military leader' or 'commander'.

ReferencesEdit

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SourcesEdit

  • Machiavelli, Niccolò. History of Florence. book I, ch. vii. (on-line text)
  • Rendina, Claudio (1992). I Capitani di ventura. Newton Compton.
  • Ricotti, Ercole (1844–1845). Storia delle compagnie di ventura in Italia, 4 vols.
  • Lenman, B., Anderson, T., eds. (2000). Chambers Dictionary of World History, Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd. Template:ISBN.
  • Template:Cite book
  • Димов, Г. Войната в италийските земи през късното Средновековие: кондотиерите – В: сп. Алманах, I, 2015, 30–43.
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External linksEdit

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