Modular group

In mathematics, the modular group is the projective special linear group <math> \operatorname{PSL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math> of <math>2\times 2</math> matrices with integer coefficients and determinant <math>1</math>, such that the matrices <math>A</math> and <math>-A</math> are identified. The modular group acts on the upper-half of the complex plane by linear fractional transformations. The name "modular group" comes from the relation to moduli spaces, and not from modular arithmetic.

Definition

The modular group Template:Math is the group of fractional linear transformations of the complex upper half-plane, which have the form

<math>z\mapsto\frac{az+b}{cz+d},</math>

where <math>a,b,c,d</math> are integers, and <math>ad-bc=1</math>. The group operation is function composition.

This group of transformations is isomorphic to the projective special linear group <math> \operatorname{PSL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math>, which is the quotient of the 2-dimensional special linear group <math> \operatorname{SL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math> by its center <math>\{I,-I\}</math>. In other words, <math> \operatorname{PSL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math> consists of all matrices

<math>\begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{pmatrix}</math>

where <math>a,b,c,d</math> are integers, <math>ad-bc=1</math>, and pairs of matrices <math>A</math> and <math>-A</math> are considered to be identical. The group operation is usual matrix multiplication.

Some authors define the modular group to be <math> \operatorname{PSL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math>, and still others define the modular group to be the larger group <math> \operatorname{SL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math>.

Some mathematical relations require the consideration of the group <math>\operatorname{GL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math> of matrices with determinant plus or minus one. (<math>\operatorname{SL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math> is a subgroup of this group.) Similarly, <math>\operatorname{PGL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math> is the quotient group <math>\operatorname{GL}(2,\mathbb Z)/\{I,-I\}</math>.

Since all <math>2\times 2</math> matrices with determinant 1 are symplectic matrices, then <math>\operatorname{SL}(2,\mathbb Z)=\operatorname{Sp}(2,\Z)</math>, the symplectic group of <math>2\times 2</math> matrices.

Finding elements

To find an explicit matrix

<math>\begin{pmatrix} a & x \\ b & y \end{pmatrix}</math>

in <math>\operatorname{SL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math>, begin with two coprime integers <math>a,b</math>, and solve the determinant equation <math>ay-bx = 1</math>.Template:Efn

For example, if <math>a = 7, \text{ } b =6 </math> then the determinant equation reads

<math>7y-6x = 1,</math>

then taking <math>y = -5</math> and <math>x = -6</math> gives <math>-35 - (-36) = 1</math>. Hence

<math>\begin{pmatrix}

7 & -6 \\ 6 & -5 \end{pmatrix}</math> is a matrix. Then, using the projection, these matrices define elements in <math>\operatorname{PSL}(2,\mathbb Z)</math>.

Number-theoretic properties

The unit determinant of

<math>\begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{pmatrix}</math>

implies that the fractions _{Template:Math}, _{Template:Math}, _{Template:Math}, _{Template:Math} are all irreducible, that is having no common factors (provided the denominators are non-zero, of course). More generally, if Template:Math is an irreducible fraction, then

<math>\frac{ap+bq}{cp+dq}</math>

is also irreducible (again, provided the denominator be non-zero). Any pair of irreducible fractions can be connected in this way; that is, for any pair Template:Math and Template:Math of irreducible fractions, there exist elements

<math>\begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{pmatrix}\in\operatorname{SL}(2, \mathbb Z)</math>

such that

<math>r = ap+bq \quad \mbox{ and } \quad s=cp+dq.</math>

Elements of the modular group provide a symmetry on the two-dimensional lattice. Let Template:Math and Template:Math be two complex numbers whose ratio is not real. Then the set of points

<math>\Lambda (\omega_1, \omega_2)=\{ m\omega_1 +n\omega_2 : m,n\in \mathbb Z \}</math>

is a lattice of parallelograms on the plane. A different pair of vectors Template:Math and Template:Math will generate exactly the same lattice if and only if

<math>\begin{pmatrix}\alpha_1 \\ \alpha_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \omega_1 \\ \omega_2 \end{pmatrix}</math>

for some matrix in Template:Math. It is for this reason that doubly periodic functions, such as elliptic functions, possess a modular group symmetry.

The action of the modular group on the rational numbers can most easily be understood by envisioning a square grid, with grid point Template:Math corresponding to the fraction Template:Math (see Euclid's orchard). An irreducible fraction is one that is visible from the origin; the action of the modular group on a fraction never takes a visible (irreducible) to a hidden (reducible) one, and vice versa.

Note that any member of the modular group maps the projectively extended real line one-to-one to itself, and furthermore bijectively maps the projectively extended rational line (the rationals with infinity) to itself, the irrationals to the irrationals, the transcendental numbers to the transcendental numbers, the non-real numbers to the non-real numbers, the upper half-plane to the upper half-plane, et cetera.

If Template:Math and Template:Math are two successive convergents of a continued fraction, then the matrix

<math>\begin{pmatrix} p_{n-1} & p_{n} \\ q_{n-1} & q_{n} \end{pmatrix}</math>

belongs to Template:Math. In particular, if Template:Math for positive integers Template:Math, Template:Math, Template:Math, Template:Math with Template:Math and Template:Math then Template:Math and Template:Math will be neighbours in the Farey sequence of order Template:Math. Important special cases of continued fraction convergents include the Fibonacci numbers and solutions to Pell's equation. In both cases, the numbers can be arranged to form a semigroup subset of the modular group.

Group-theoretic properties

Presentation

The modular group can be shown to be generated by the two transformations

<math>\begin{align}

S &: z\mapsto -\frac1z \\ T &: z\mapsto z+1 \end{align}</math>

so that every element in the modular group can be represented (in a non-unique way) by the composition of powers of Template:Math and Template:Math. Geometrically, Template:Math represents inversion in the unit circle followed by reflection with respect to the imaginary axis, while Template:Math represents a unit translation to the right.

The generators Template:Math and Template:Math obey the relations Template:Math and Template:Math. It can be shown <ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> that these are a complete set of relations, so the modular group has the presentation:

<math>\Gamma \cong \left\langle S, T \mid S^2=I, \left(ST\right)^3=I \right\rangle</math>

This presentation describes the modular group as the rotational triangle group Template:Math (infinity as there is no relation on Template:Math), and it thus maps onto all triangle groups Template:Math by adding the relation Template:Math, which occurs for instance in the congruence subgroup Template:Math.

Using the generators Template:Math and Template:Math instead of Template:Math and Template:Math, this shows that the modular group is isomorphic to the free product of the cyclic groups Template:Math and Template:Math:

<math>\Gamma \cong C_2 * C_3</math>

• Sideway.gif

  The action of Template:Math on Template:Math

• Turnovergif.gif

  The action of Template:Math on Template:Math

Braid group

File:Braid-modular-group-cover.svg

The braid group Template:Math is the universal central extension of the modular group.

The braid group Template:Math is the universal central extension of the modular group, with these sitting as lattices inside the (topological) universal covering group Template:Math. Further, the modular group has a trivial center, and thus the modular group is isomorphic to the quotient group of Template:Math modulo its center; equivalently, to the group of inner automorphisms of Template:Math.

The braid group Template:Math in turn is isomorphic to the knot group of the trefoil knot.

Quotients

The quotients by congruence subgroups are of significant interest.

Other important quotients are the Template:Math triangle groups, which correspond geometrically to descending to a cylinder, quotienting the Template:Math coordinate modulo Template:Math, as Template:Math. Template:Math is the group of icosahedral symmetry, and the [[(2,3,7) triangle group|Template:Math triangle group]] (and associated tiling) is the cover for all Hurwitz surfaces.

Presenting as a matrix group

The group <math>\text{SL}_2(\mathbb{Z})</math> can be generated by the two matrices<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

<math>S = \begin{pmatrix}

0 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{pmatrix}, \text{ } T = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}</math>

since

<math>S^2 = -I_2, \text{ }

(ST)^3 = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}^3 = -I_2</math>

The projection <math>\text{SL}_2(\mathbb{Z}) \to \text{PSL}_2(\mathbb{Z})</math> turns these matrices into generators of <math>\text{PSL}_2(\mathbb{Z})</math>, with relations similar to the group presentation.

Relationship to hyperbolic geometry

The modular group is important because it forms a subgroup of the group of isometries of the hyperbolic plane. If we consider the upper half-plane model Template:Math of hyperbolic plane geometry, then the group of all orientation-preserving isometries of Template:Math consists of all Möbius transformations of the form

<math>z\mapsto \frac{az + b}{cz + d}</math>

where Template:Math, Template:Math, Template:Math, Template:Math are real numbers. In terms of projective coordinates, the group Template:Math acts on the upper half-plane Template:Math by projectivity:

<math>[z,\ 1]\begin{pmatrix} a & c \\ b & d \end{pmatrix} \,= \, [az + b,\ cz +d] \,\thicksim\, \left[\frac{az + b}{cz + d}, \ 1\right].</math>

This action is faithful. Since Template:Math is a subgroup of Template:Math, the modular group is a subgroup of the group of orientation-preserving isometries of Template:Math.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Tessellation of the hyperbolic plane

File:ModularGroup-FundamentalDomain.svg

A typical fundamental domain for the action of Template:Math on the upper half-plane.

The modular group Template:Math acts on <math display=inline>\mathbb H</math> as a discrete subgroup of <math display=inline> \operatorname{PSL}(2,\mathbb R)</math>, that is, for each Template:Math in <math display=inline>\mathbb H</math> we can find a neighbourhood of Template:Math which does not contain any other element of the orbit of Template:Math. This also means that we can construct fundamental domains, which (roughly) contain exactly one representative from the orbit of every Template:Math in Template:Math. (Care is needed on the boundary of the domain.)

There are many ways of constructing a fundamental domain, but a common choice is the region

<math>R = \left\{ z \in \mathbb H \colon \left| z \right| > 1,\, \left| \operatorname{Re}(z) \right| < \tfrac12 \right\}</math>

bounded by the vertical lines Template:Math and Template:Math, and the circle Template:Math. This region is a hyperbolic triangle. It has vertices at Template:Math and Template:Math, where the angle between its sides is Template:Math, and a third vertex at infinity, where the angle between its sides is 0.

There is a strong connection between the modular group and elliptic curves. Each point <math>z</math> in the upper half-plane gives an elliptic curve, namely the quotient of <math>\mathbb{C}</math> by the lattice generated by 1 and <math>z</math>. Two points in the upper half-plane give isomorphic elliptic curves if and only if they are related by a transformation in the modular group. Thus, the quotient of the upper half-plane by the action of the modular group is the so-called moduli space of elliptic curves: a space whose points describe isomorphism classes of elliptic curves. This is often visualized as the fundamental domain described above, with some points on its boundary identified.

The modular group and its subgroups are also a source of interesting tilings of the hyperbolic plane. By transforming this fundamental domain in turn by each of the elements of the modular group, a regular tessellation of the hyperbolic plane by congruent hyperbolic triangles known as the V6.6.∞ Infinite-order triangular tiling is created. Note that each such triangle has one vertex either at infinity or on the real axis Template:Math.

This tiling can be extended to the Poincaré disk, where every hyperbolic triangle has one vertex on the boundary of the disk. The tiling of the Poincaré disk is given in a natural way by the [[j-invariant|Template:Math-invariant]], which is invariant under the modular group, and attains every complex number once in each triangle of these regions.

This tessellation can be refined slightly, dividing each region into two halves (conventionally colored black and white), by adding an orientation-reversing map; the colors then correspond to orientation of the domain. Adding in Template:Math and taking the right half of the region Template:Math (where Template:Math) yields the usual tessellation. This tessellation first appears in print in Template:Harv,<ref name="lebruyn">Template:Citation</ref> where it is credited to Richard Dedekind, in reference to Template:Harv.<ref name="lebruyn" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

File:Morphing of modular tiling to 2 3 7 triangle tiling.gif

CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The map of groups Template:Math (from modular group to triangle group) can be visualized in terms of this tiling (yielding a tiling on the modular curve), as depicted in the video at right.

Congruence subgroups

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Important subgroups of the modular group Template:Math, called congruence subgroups, are given by imposing congruence relations on the associated matrices.

There is a natural homomorphism Template:Math given by reducing the entries modulo Template:Math. This induces a homomorphism on the modular group Template:Math. The kernel of this homomorphism is called the principal congruence subgroup of level Template:Math, denoted Template:Math. We have the following short exact sequence:

<math>1\to\Gamma(N)\to\Gamma\to\operatorname{PSL}(2, \mathbb Z/N\mathbb Z) \to 1.</math>

Being the kernel of a homomorphism Template:Math is a normal subgroup of the modular group Template:Math. The group Template:Math is given as the set of all modular transformations

<math>z\mapsto\frac{az+b}{cz+d}</math>

for which Template:Math and Template:Math.

It is easy to show that the trace of a matrix representing an element of Template:Math cannot be −1, 0, or 1, so these subgroups are torsion-free groups. (There are other torsion-free subgroups.)

The principal congruence subgroup of level 2, Template:Math, is also called the modular group Template:Math. Since Template:Math is isomorphic to Template:Math, Template:Math is a subgroup of index 6. The group Template:Math consists of all modular transformations for which Template:Math and Template:Math are odd and Template:Math and Template:Math are even.

Another important family of congruence subgroups are the [[modular group Gamma0|modular group Template:Math]] defined as the set of all modular transformations for which Template:Math, or equivalently, as the subgroup whose matrices become upper triangular upon reduction modulo Template:Math. Note that Template:Math is a subgroup of Template:Math. The modular curves associated with these groups are an aspect of monstrous moonshine – for a prime number Template:Math, the modular curve of the normalizer is genus zero if and only if Template:Math divides the order of the monster group, or equivalently, if Template:Math is a supersingular prime.

Dyadic monoid

One important subset of the modular group is the dyadic monoid, which is the monoid of all strings of the form Template:Math for positive integers Template:Math. This monoid occurs naturally in the study of fractal curves, and describes the self-similarity symmetries of the Cantor function, Minkowski's question mark function, and the Koch snowflake, each being a special case of the general de Rham curve. The monoid also has higher-dimensional linear representations; for example, the Template:Math representation can be understood to describe the self-symmetry of the blancmange curve.

Maps of the torus

The group Template:Math is the linear maps preserving the standard lattice Template:Math, and Template:Math is the orientation-preserving maps preserving this lattice; they thus descend to self-homeomorphisms of the torus (SL mapping to orientation-preserving maps), and in fact map isomorphically to the (extended) mapping class group of the torus, meaning that every self-homeomorphism of the torus is isotopic to a map of this form. The algebraic properties of a matrix as an element of Template:Math correspond to the dynamics of the induced map of the torus.

Hecke groups

The modular group can be generalized to the Hecke groups, named for Erich Hecke, and defined as follows.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Hecke group Template:Math with Template:Math, is the discrete group generated by

<math>\begin{align}

z &\mapsto -\frac1z \\ z &\mapsto z + \lambda_q, \end{align}</math>

where Template:Math. For small values of Template:Math, one has:

<math>\begin{align}

\lambda_3 &= 1, \\ \lambda_4 &= \sqrt{2}, \\ \lambda_5 &= \frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2}, \\ \lambda_6 &= \sqrt{3}, \\ \lambda_8 &= \sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}}. \end{align}</math>

The modular group Template:Math is isomorphic to Template:Math and they share properties and applications – for example, just as one has the free product of cyclic groups

<math>\Gamma \cong C_2 * C_3,</math>

more generally one has

<math>H_q \cong C_2 * C_q,</math>

which corresponds to the triangle group Template:Math. There is similarly a notion of principal congruence subgroups associated to principal ideals in Template:Math.

History

The modular group and its subgroups were first studied in detail by Richard Dedekind and by Felix Klein as part of his Erlangen programme in the 1870s. However, the closely related elliptic functions were studied by Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1785, and further results on elliptic functions were published by Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi and Niels Henrik Abel in 1827.

See also

• Bianchi group
• Classical modular curve
• Fuchsian group
• [[J-invariant|Template:Math-invariant]]
• Kleinian group
• Mapping class group
• Minkowski's question-mark function
• Möbius transformation
• Modular curve
• Modular form
• Kuṭṭaka
• Poincaré half-plane model
• Uniform tilings in hyperbolic plane

References

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation.