Paraclete

Paraclete (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx) is a Christian biblical term occurring five times in the Johannine texts of the New Testament. In Christian theology, the word commonly refers to the Holy Spirit and is translated as 'advocate', 'counsellor', or 'helper'.

Etymology

The English term Paraclete comes from the Koine Greek word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). A combination of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('beside/alongside') and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('to call'),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the word first appears in the Bible in John 14:16.<ref name=Barton>Kieffer, René, "John," in John Barton and John Muddiman, eds., The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press, 2007, 987.</ref> René Kieffer further explains the development of the meaning of this term:

The word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is a verbal adjective, often used of one called to help in a lawcourt. In the Jewish tradition the word was transcribed with Hebrew letters and used for angels, prophets, and the just as advocates before God's court. The word also acquired the meaning of 'one who consoles' (cf. Job 16:2, Theodotion's and Aquila's translations; the LXX has the correct word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). It is probably wrong to explain the Johannine {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} on the basis of only one religious background. The word is filled with a complex meaning: the Spirit replaces Jesus, is an advocate and a witness, but also consoles the disciples.<ref name=Barton/>

Latin etymological precedent

Lochlan Shelfer suggests that the Greek term paraclete is a translation of the preceding Latin term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}:

"{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} [does not have] any independent meaning of its own, it is in fact a calque for the Latin term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} meaning a person of high social standing who speaks on behalf of a defendant in a court of law before a judge. When Greeks came into contact with the Roman Empire [...] the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was developed as a precise equivalent to the Latin legal term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Thus, its significance must be found not only in its very few extant appearances, but also in the specific use of the Latin legal term."<ref name="Shelfer 2009">Template:Cite journal</ref>

This legalistic interpretation of the etymology contradicts the word found in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Job (Chapter 16, Verse 2), the meaning of which is specifically "comforter".<ref>https://margmowczko.com/paraclete-in-ancient-literature-and-nt/</ref>

In Classical Greek

The term is not common in non-Jewish texts.<ref>According to Bauer's Lexicon: "the technical meaning 'lawyer', 'attorney' is rare."</ref> The best-known use is by Demosthenes:

Citizens of Athens, I do not doubt that you are all very well aware that this trial has been the center of keen partisanship and active canvassing, for you saw the people who were accosting and annoying you just now at the casting of lots. But I have to make a request which ought to be granted without asking, that you will all give less weight to private entreaty or personal influence than to the spirit of justice and to the oath which you severally swore when you entered that box. You will reflect that justice and the oath concern yourselves and the commonwealth, whereas the importunity and party spirit of advocates serve the end of those private ambitions which you are convened by the laws to thwart, not to encourage for the advantage of evil-doers.{{#if:Demosthenes, On the False Embassy 19:1|{{#if:|}}

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A Greek–English Lexicon cites the example of a court of justice.

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, ον,

A. called to one's aid, in a court of justice : as Subst., legal assistant, advocate, D.19.1, Lycurg. Fr.102, etc. 2. summoned, "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}" D.C.46.20, cf. BGU601.12 (ii A.D.). II. intercessor, Ph.2.520 : hence in NT, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, of the Holy Spirit, Ev.Jo.14.16, cf. 1 Ep.Jo.2.1.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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In Judaism

Philo speaks several times of "paraclete" advocates primarily in the sense of human intercessors.

The word later went from Hellenistic Jewish writing into rabbinic literature.<ref>For a summary of rabbinical usage see Jewish Encyclopedia 1914 "Paraclete"</ref>

Other words are used to translate the Hebrew word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'comforter' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref>The Orthodox Jewish Brit Chadasha Bible Translation</ref> Template:Gospel Jesus

In Christianity

In the New Testament, paraclete appears only in the Johannine texts, and it is used only on five occasions: Gospel of John 14:16, 14:26, 15:26, 16:7, and First Epistle of John chapter 2, verse 1.

And I will ask the Father, and he will give you another Advocate, to be with you forever. This is the Spirit of truth, whom the world cannot receive, because it neither sees him nor knows him. You know him, because he abides with you, and he will be in you.{{#if:Template:Bibleverse|{{#if:|}}

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1 My little children, I am writing these things to you so that you may not sin. And if anyone sins, we have an Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous.{{#if:Template:Bibleverse|{{#if:|}}

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In John 14:16-17, 'paraclete' is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and 'spirit' is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), meaning 'breath'. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} appears over 250 times in the Christian New Testament, and is the word used to refer to the Holy Spirit, i.e., the Spirit of God. As a result of the immediate explanation in John 14:17, the Paraclete in John 14:16 is considered to be the Holy Spirit.

File:Rom, Vatikan, Basilika St. Peter, Die Taube des Heiligen Geistes (Cathedra Petri, Bernini).jpg

Depiction of the Holy Spirit as a Dove, from the Throne of Saint Peter, Saint Peter's Basilica

M. E. Boring, writing in the Cambridge University journal New Testament Studies, describes a "striking similarity" between the defined attributes of what the Paraclete is, and is to do, and what the outcome of Christian prophecy has spoken to, explaining the Paraclete as the post-Passover gift of the Holy Spirit. "The Paraclete represents the Spirit as manifested in a particular way, as a pneumatic Christian speech charisma. Every verb describing the ministry of the Paraclete is directly related to his speech function."<ref name="The Influence of Christian Prophecy on the Johannine Portrayal of the Paraclete and Jesus">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The early church identified the Paraclete as the Holy Spirit.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In first-century Jewish and Christian understanding, the presence of the Holy Spirit is to claim the rebirth of prophecy.<ref name="The Influence of Christian Prophecy on the Johannine Portrayal of the Paraclete and Jesus"/>

During his period as a hermit in the mid-12th century, Peter Abelard dedicated his chapel to the Paraclete because "I had come there as a fugitive and, in the depths of my despair, was granted some comfort by the grace of God."<ref>"The Letters of Abelard and Heloise", Betty Radice, Trans. London: Penguin, 1973. P. 30</ref>

Today, the Holy Spirit continues to be referred to as the Paraclete in a prayer known as the Divine Praises, recited during Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament.

Scholarly interpretations

Template:Bibleref2 quotes Jesus as saying "another Paraclete" will come to help his disciples, implying, according to Lawrence Lutkemeyer, that Jesus is the first and primary Paraclete.<ref name="THE ROLE OF THE PARACLETE">Template:Cite journal</ref> In Template:Bibleref2 Jesus himself is called "paraclete".

Raymond Brown (1970),<ref>Brown, Raymond Edward, ed. The gospel according to John. Vol. 29. Cambridge University Press, 1970, 1141. Brown writes; "Thus, the one whom John calls "another Paraclete" is another Jesus. Since the Paraclete can come only when Jesus departs, the Paraclete is the presence of Jesus when Jesus is absent. Jesus' promises to dwell within his disciples are"</ref><ref>Kinn, James W. The Spirit of Jesus in Scripture and prayer. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, 60. Winn writes; "Second, the whole complex of parallels above leads Raymond Brown to a more profound conclusion: the Holy Spirit continues the presence of Jesus. Thus the one whom Jesus calls "another Paraclete" is in many ways another Jesus, ."</ref> supported by George Johnston (2005),<ref>Johnston, George. The spirit-paraclete in the gospel of John. Vol. 12. Cambridge University Press, 2005, 94. Johnston writes; "Brown cannot regard such parallelism as coincidental, and he is perfectly correct. His conclusion is that 'as "another Paraclete" the Paraclete is, as it were, another Jesus ... and the Paraclete is the presence of Jesus when Jesus is "</ref> also says that the "another Paraclete" of John 14:16 is in many ways another Jesus, the presence of Jesus after Jesus ascends to his Father.<ref name="THE ROLE OF THE PARACLETE"/><ref>Marthaler, Berard L. The creed: The apostolic faith in contemporary theology. Twenty-Third Publications, 1993, 275. Marthaler writes; "Thus," writes Brown, "the one whom John calls 'another Paraclete' is another Jesus."17 The Paraclete is the presence of God in the world when Jesus ascends to the Father."</ref>

The Gospel of Matthew twice uses the passive form of the corresponding verb {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, in 2:18 and 5:4. In both instances, the context is of mourning, and the meaning of the verb is 'to be comforted'.<ref>Greek Word Study Tool (publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu): παρακαλέω, A, III, 2</ref>

Paraclete first appearing in gospel

Here is the context of the passage in John 14:15-27<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> with the translation of Paraclete as Advocate shown in bold:

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In Islam

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Many Muslim writers have argued that "another Paraclete" (John 14:16)—the first being Jesus—refers to Muhammad. This claim is based on Quran 61:6.

"And [mention] when Jesus, the son of Mary, said, "O children of Israel, indeed I am the messenger of God to you confirming what came before me of the Torah and bringing good tidings of a messenger to come after me, whose name is Ahmad." But when he came to them with clear evidences, they said, "This is obvious magic."{{#if: Sahih International|{{#if:|}}

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A few Muslim commentators, such as David Benjamin Keldani (1928), have argued the theory that the original Koine Greek used was {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, meaning 'famed, illustrious, or praiseworthy', rendered in Arabic as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (another name of Muhammad), and that this was substituted by Christians with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name="EoI-Isa">Donzel, E. Van and B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat. "Isa" in Encyclopedia of Islam Volume 4, 1997, 83.</ref>Template:Dead link<ref>Watt (1991) pp. 33–34</ref>Template:Full citation needed There are currently no known Greek manuscripts with this reading (all extant Greek manuscripts read {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), although the earliest manuscript evidence available is from the 3rd century.<ref>Reuben J. Swanson, ed., New Testament Greek Manuscripts: John. William Carey International University Press, 1998. Variant Readings Arranged in Horizontal Lines Against Codex Vaticanus – see John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7. Also see Nestle-Aland, eds., Novum Testamentum Graece, 28th ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Biblegesellschaft, 2012. Early manuscripts, Papyrus 66 and Papyrus 75, are generally placed in the 3rd century; Papyrus 66 is even dated to around 200 CE. {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} & {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} See also Template:Cite book</ref>

Regarding what the original Greek term was, according to A. Guthrie and E. F. F. Bishop:

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Sean Anthony agrees that the connection of Ahmad to the Paraclete in the Gospel of John may have been a later tradition that is not found in the work of Ibn Ishaq and that the earliest extant attempts by Muslims to connect these two figures that inspire later discussion on the subject goes back to Ibn Hisham and Ibn Qutaybah.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

A later interpolation of this passage to the Quran has been rejected in modern Islamic studies.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> This has been supported by the fact that the earliest as well as the later manuscripts of the Quran contain the same passage and wording in chapter 61.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Historical development

In Łewond's version of the correspondence between the Byzantine emperor Leo III (Template:Reign) and the Umayyad caliph Umar II (Template:Reign), a letter is attributed to Leo:Template:Sfn

We recognize Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John as the authors of the Gospel, and yet I know that this truth, recognized by us Christians wounds you, so that you seek to find accomplices for your lie. In brief, you admit that we say that it was written by God, and brought down from the heavens, as you pretend for your Furqan, although we know that it was `Umar, Abu Turab and Salman the Persian, who composed that, even though the rumor has got round among you that God sent it down from heavens…. [God] has chosen the way of sending [the human race] Prophets, and it is for this reason that the Lord, having finished all those things that He had decided on beforehand, and having fore-announced His incarnation by way of His prophets, yet knowing that men still had need of assistance from God, promised to send the Holy Spirit, under the name of Paraclete, (Consoler), to console them in the distress and sorrow they felt at the departure of their Lord and Master. I reiterate, that it was for this cause alone that Jesus called the Holy Spirit the Paraclete, since He sought to console His disciples for His departure, and recall to them all that he had said, all that He had done before their eyes, all that they were called to propagate throughout the world by their witness. Paraclete thus signifies "consoler", while Muhammad means "to give thanks", or "to give grace", a meaning which has a connection with the word Paraclete.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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See also

• Ahmad
• Congregation of the Servants of the Paraclete
• Cult of the Holy Spirit
• Holy Spirit in Islam
• Rūḥ
• Montanism

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

External links

• Catholic Encyclopedia: Paraclete
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Paraclete