Chain letter

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A chain letter is a message that attempts to convince the recipient to make a number of copies and pass them on to a certain number of recipients. The "chain" is an exponentially growing pyramid (a tree graph) that cannot be sustained indefinitely.

Common methods used in chain letters include emotionally manipulative stories, get-rich-quick pyramid schemes, and the exploitation of superstition to threaten the recipient with misfortune or promise good luck. Originally, chain letters were letters sent by mail; today, chain letters are often sent electronically via email, social network sites, and text messages.

Types

There are two main types of chain letter:

1. Hoaxes: Hoaxes attempt to trick or defraud users. A hoax could be malicious, instructing users to delete a file necessary to the operating system by claiming it is a virus. It could also be a scam that convinces users to spread the letter to other people for a specific reason, or send money or personal information. Phishing attacks could fall into this category. Get-rich-quick pyramid schemes promising a substantial return for sending money to people on a list are a common form of hoax chain letter.
2. Luck- or superstition-based letters: These letters promise good luck for forwarding the message or threaten bad luck (or even death) if the chain is broken or the letter is not forwarded. These often prey on superstition. This category includes urban legends designed to be redistributed, usually warning users of a threat or claiming to be notifying them of important or urgent information. Another common form are emails that promise users monetary rewards for forwarding the message or suggest that they are signing something that will be submitted to a particular group. These usually have no negative effect aside from wasted time and potential anxiety for the recipient.

In the United States, chain letters that request money or other items of value and promise a substantial return to the participants (such as the infamous Make Money Fast scheme) are illegal.<ref>Chain Letters. United States Postal Inspection Service. Archived from the original on 8 May 2012. The U.S. Postal Inspection Service cites Template:USC when it asserts that chain letters are "illegal if they request money or other items of value and promise a substantial return to the participants, pursuant to Template:USC, the Postal Lottery Statute".</ref> Some colleges and military bases have passed regulations stating that in the private mail of college students and military personnel, respectively, chain letters are not authorized and will be thrown out. However, it is often difficult to distinguish chain letters from genuine correspondence.

Channels

Print

File:Chain Letter.jpg

Printed Australian chain letter from 2006, with a five-cent coin taped to it as what it calls a "financial eye-catcher"

The oldest known channel for chain letters is written, or printed, on letters on paper. These might be exchanged hand-to-hand or distributed through the mail.

Early examples and precursors

In Europe, letters known as "Himmelsbrief" (Template:Langx; Template:Langx) existed, with examples dating back as early as the 6th century.<ref name="現代20220109_p1"/> Purported to have fallen from heaven, delivered by God or an agent thereof, they often urged adherence to Christian teachings and promised protection from misfortune to those who possessed the letter.<ref name="現代20220109_p1"/> By the 20th century, these evolved to include instructions: copying the letter and sending it to a set number of people would bring good fortune, while failing to do so would bring misfortune.<ref name="現代20220109_p2"/> Eventually, the religious elements faded, leaving simple instructions to circulate the letter for good luck or face bad luck.<ref name="現代20220109_p2"/> Already in the nineteenth century, similar chain letters were known to have circulated among Muslim pilgrims going on the hajj to Mecca. Those chain letters promised blessings or curses and required replication.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

File:Himmelsbrief christian text colored angel 1800.jpg

An example of a "Heaven Letter" (Himmelsbrief) from around 1800

One notorious early example of a money-based chain letter was the "Prosperity Club" or "Send-a-Dime" letter. This letter started in Denver, Colorado in 1935, based on an earlier luck letter. It instructed recipients to send a dime to the person at the top of a list of names, remove that name, add their own to the bottom, and mail the letter to five others, warning of misfortune for breaking the chain.<ref name="まぼろしチャンネル_200308"/><ref name="VanArsdale 1998"/> It soon swamped the Denver post office with up to 100,000 letters per day before spilling into St. Louis and other cities.<ref name="まぼろしチャンネル_200308"/><ref name="VanArsdale 1998"/> Some consider this a precursor to the Japanese "Fukou no Tegami" (Unlucky Letter).<ref name="まぼろしチャンネル_200308"/>

In 1964, the head of the United States Postal Inspection Service ordered a nationwide crackdown on violators of postal fraud and lottery laws due to an increase of chain letters reported around college towns in the United States.<ref name="jefferson0227"/> The typical letters included a list of names and instructed the recipient to send money to the name at the top of the list, remove that name, add their own name to the bottom of the list, and forward the letters to two more people.<ref name="jefferson0227"/>

Chain letters in Japan

File:Fukou no tegami 20240913.jpg

A modern example of a handwritten "Fukou no Tegami" (Unlucky Letter)

Japan has a long history of practices resembling chain letters, often tied to warding off misfortune or attracting good luck through specific, shared actions. During the Edo period (Bunsei era, 1818–1830), sending printed images of Daikokuten with instructions to distribute them to 100 homes for good luck became popular, eventually banned by the shogunate but resurfacing in the early Meiji period.<ref name="大百科事典8_p590"/><ref name="朝日新聞20160312m_p3"/><ref name="日本迷信集20211020_p122"/> Other historical examples include rumors in 1813 that seeing a specific star meant death unless one ate botamochi,<ref name="ムー20(11)_p82"/><ref name="続日本随筆大成別巻10_p312"/> and rumors during World War II involving the mythical creature Kudan predicting protection from air raids if one ate azuki rice or ohagi, or Takami Jun's diary entry about eating only rakkyō for breakfast to avoid bombings, provided the information was shared.<ref name="ムー20(11)_p82"/><ref name="日本の護符ベスト10_p73"/><ref name="高見順日記3_p397"/> This cultural background of sharing methods to attract luck or avoid disaster is seen as a foundation for the later popularity of chain letters in Japan.<ref name="ムー20(11)_p82"/>

Kōun no Tegami (幸運の手紙 - Lucky Letter)

File:Tokyo Asahi Shinbun 1922-11-20 2.jpg

An English-language "Lucky Letter" reported in the Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, 20 November 1922

Beginning around 1922 in Tokyo, "Kōun no Tegami" (幸運の手紙 - Lucky Letter), also called "Kōun no Hagaki" (Lucky Postcard), became popular.<ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p309"/><ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/> Believed to originate from the "Lucky Chain" game popular in Europe during World War I or similar chain letters in the US,<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/><ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p94"/><ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p106"/> these letters were translated into Japanese.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p106"/> A 30 January 1922, Tokyo Asahi Shimbun article mentions a postcard mailed from London, suggesting foreign origins.<ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p312"/><ref name="朝日新聞19221120m_p2"/>

File:Tokyo Asahi Shinbun 1922-01-27 01.jpg

A Japanese "Lucky Letter" titled "For Good Fortune" (幸運之為に), featured in the Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, 27 January 1922

These letters promised great fortune if the recipient copied the text onto a certain number of postcards (e.g., nine) and sent them to others within a time limit (e.g., 24 hours), but threatened "great misfortune" (大悪運, dai-aku'un) if the chain was broken.<ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p18"/><ref name="朝日新聞19220127m_p5"/><ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p98"/> Some included harsh warnings like "great disaster within 24 hours" for breaking the chain.<ref name="婦人ライフ1(2)_p25"/> The letters often mentioned the chain needing to circle the globe a certain number of times (e.g., nine times), reflecting the era of mail transport by ship.<ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p18"/> An example from the 27 January 1922, Tokyo Asahi Shimbun reads: Template:Quotation

The phenomenon became a social issue, frequently reported in newspapers.<ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p18"/>

File:Tokyo Asahi Shinbun 1922-02-26.jpg

A 1922 advertisement in the Tokyo Asahi Shimbun mimicking the style of a Lucky Letter

Politicians used them for campaigns, and businesses created advertisements mimicking the format, leveraging the free distribution network.<ref name="奇態流行史_p109"/><ref name="ムー20(11)_p82"/><ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p314"/> Writer and social critic Miyatake Gaikotsu documented the trend in his 1922 book Kitai Ryūkōshi (History of Strange Fads), noting people sent them out of fear of misfortune.<ref name="奇態流行史_p109"/> (Gaikotsu stated his interest in the Lucky Letter phenomenon inspired him to write the book.)<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/><ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p98"/> Unlike later "Unlucky Letters," the focus was theoretically on gaining luck, but the fear of incurring bad luck by breaking the chain often dominated.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p106"/> While Western interpretations often focused on monetary gain/loss, Japanese interpretations tended towards physical harm, illness, or death as the consequence of misfortune.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p100"/> Newspaper accounts described people overcome with anxiety, sending the letters despite skepticism.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p100"/><ref name="朝日新聞19220129m_p5"/> The potential for exponential growth (one person sending nine, repeated ten times, yielding over 3.4 billion letters) was also noted as problematic.<ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p310"/> The trend spread, appearing in Fengtian (now Shenyang), Manchuria in May 1922, where authorities attempted, unsuccessfully, to ban them.<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/> The 1923 Great Kantō earthquake later led some to view the letter craze as an ill omen.<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/>

File:Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun 1926-08-01.jpg

The "Lucky Letter" incident involving prominent figures reported in the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 1 August 1926

In 1926, a Lucky Letter incident involved prominent figures. Imakita Sakunosuke, head of the government's Monopoly Bureau, received an English letter via an American acquaintance and a Japanese scholar. Imakita translated it, added instructions to send to nine friends, and mailed it to influential figures in politics and finance, causing a stir.<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/><ref name="ムー20(11)_p84"/> Police investigated, finding recipients including former Tokyo mayor Gotō Shinpei.<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/><ref name="実話ナックルズGOLD1_p81"/> The Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun reported the event on 1 August 1926.<ref name="ムー20(11)_p82"/><ref name="朝日新聞19260801m_p7"/> Imakita claimed his daughter sent them playfully, but some analysts question this, suggesting it might have been a pre-arranged excuse or even an early experiment in information diffusion, given the involvement of military figures and Gotō Shinpei (then president of NHK's predecessor).<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/><ref name="実話ナックルズGOLD1_p81"/> Political scientist Yoshino Sakuzō also received one in August 1926, dismissing it as foolish but criticizing police intervention as overreach.<ref name="主張と閑談5_p291"/><ref name="主張と閑談5_p294"/><ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p312"/><ref name="ムー20190124"/> Despite suppression efforts, senders were sometimes punished.<ref name="ムー20190124"/>

File:Tokyo Asahi Shinbun 1935-09-03.jpg

A 1935 Tokyo Asahi Shimbun article reporting an arrest related to a money-based Lucky Letter scheme

Although some sources claim Lucky Letters died out after the Great Kanto Earthquake due to crackdowns,<ref name="大百科事典8_p590"/> they continued to appear. In 1935, a man was arrested for attempting a money-making scheme similar to the Denver "Send-a-Dime" letter, using the phone book to mail 350 letters asking for small cash contributions.<ref name="朝日新聞20100420"/><ref name="朝日新聞19350903_p11"/>

File:We are already tired of war 1943.jpg

An anti-war chain letter circulated in Japan during World War II (1943)

During World War II (1943), an anti-war chain letter circulated, stating "We are already tired of war. Let us pray to God for peace to come soon," instructing recipients to send copies to two acquaintances (the small number possibly reflecting wartime shortages).<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p100"/><ref name="世界20080401_p266"/> Post-war examples include a "Fuku'un no Tegami" (福運の手紙 - Fortune Letter) in 1948–1949, promising large sums of money (e.g., ¥16 million or ¥200,000) if recipients sent a small amount (e.g., ¥2 or ¥20) to the first name on a list, updated the list, and forwarded it to others (e.g., 7 or 15 people).<ref name="まぼろしチャンネル_200308"/><ref name="婦人ライフ1(2)_p25"/>

File:Yomiuri Shinbun 1954-10-01.jpg

A 1954 Yomiuri Shimbun article discussing the anxiety caused by Lucky Letters

By 1954, newspapers reported on the anxiety these letters caused, with a middle school girl terrified by a threat of death for not forwarding within 12 hours, and a man seeking advice after receiving a letter claiming someone died for ignoring it.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p100"/><ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p102"/> Some letters used famous foreign figures, claiming Franklin D. Roosevelt became president by sending one,<ref name="日本迷信集20211020_p120"/><ref name="新聞論調19540726_p30"/> or Thomas Edison died for not sending one.<ref name="日本迷信集20211020_p120"/>

Fukou no Tegami (不幸の手紙 - Unlucky Letter)

File:Questionnaire on 'Fukou no Tegami' (Japanese chain letter).svg

Results of a Sankei Shimbun survey on "Fukou no Tegami", 17 November 1970

The "Fukou no Tegami" (不幸の手紙 - Unlucky Letter) phenomenon is thought to have emerged when the "good luck" aspect of earlier letters disappeared, leaving only the threat of misfortune.<ref name="現代20220109_p3"/><ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/> Some suggest it began as a simple prank, replacing "good luck" with "bad luck" in existing templates.<ref name="ヤングレディ8(16)_p142"/><ref name="TVでた蔵20231212_p1"/> Research suggests it started trending around 1969 or 1970.<ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p18"/><ref name="現代20220109_p3"/><ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p309"/><ref name="日本現代怪異事典_p329"/> Newspaper articles from late 1970 and 1972 trace its spread from Kyushu through Osaka, Nagoya, and Tokyo starting around 1969.<ref name="朝日新聞19701031m_p24"/><ref name="カシマさんを追う_p172"/><ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p180"/><ref name="現代用語の基礎知識1983別冊"/> Other accounts place the start slightly earlier, around 1965.<ref name="エキサイト20140820"/>

By summer 1970, it was prevalent in Tokyo,<ref name="朝日新聞19720501m_p20"/> spreading to the Kinki region (centering on Kyoto) by November 1970,<ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p180"/><ref name="沖縄の風習と迷信_p169"/> and becoming a nationwide phenomenon that same month.<ref name="産経新聞19930403m_p15"/> A Yomiuri Shimbun article on 26 November 1970 reported receiving over a hundred complaints since early October.<ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p314"/><ref name="読売新聞19701126_p12"/> Typical wording included: Template:Quotation Template:Quotation Template:External media Variations included different time limits (e.g., 50 hours) and recipient counts (e.g., 29 or 10).<ref name="ムー20181220"/> The letters often personified themselves ("I am an Unlucky Letter") or invoked a "death god" (死神, shinigami), suggesting the letter itself possessed supernatural power.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異2017_p103"/><ref name="日本医事新報2649_p66"/> Many included instructions not to tell anyone about receiving the letter, threatening death if revealed, likely to prevent consultation.<ref name="ムー20181220"/> They were sent anonymously,<ref name="さまよう子供たち_p111"/> sometimes as letters in envelopes, sometimes as postcards.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p94"/> Some 1990s versions replaced "Okinawa" with "Ōita," lacked foreign references, used Japanese names for victims, and ended with "I am also a victim."<ref name="怖い話の本_p78"/> Like earlier Lucky Letters, some invoked famous foreigners, such as claiming Napoleon Bonaparte died for not sending one.<ref name="郵政19750801_p53"/>

Recipients were often chosen randomly from phone books<ref name="大衆現象を解く_p122"/><ref name="子どもがいる_p203"/><ref name="教育実践の記録別冊1_p117"/> or sometimes from alumni or company directories, though senders often expressed reluctance to target people they knew.<ref name="ヤングレディ8(16)_p142"/> In the 1970s, before widespread access to photocopiers, recipients had to hand-copy the entire text.<ref name="ムー20231009"/>

A key difference from earlier Lucky Letters was the anonymity; Lucky Letters often included the sender's name and sometimes a list of previous senders, making the chain's path somewhat traceable.<ref name="ムー20190117"/> Fukou no Tegami's power was also portrayed as inherent to the letter itself ("this is a death god"), whereas Lucky Letters typically threatened misfortune only as a consequence of *breaking the chain*.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p102"/> Furthermore, while Lucky Letters circulated mainly among adults, Fukou no Tegami spread widely among children (elementary and middle school students) as well,<ref name="ムー20231009"/> possibly linked to schools becoming hubs for ghost stories during Japan's high-growth period.<ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p314"/>

After a period of police activity led to a decline in early 1971,<ref name="現代用語の基礎知識1983別冊"/><ref name="朝日新聞19720501m_p20"/> the letters resurged in Tokyo by late 1971 and spread nationwide again by May 1972, with letters reported arriving from various regions.<ref name="朝日新聞19720501m_p20"/> The phenomenon persisted into the 1990s, adapting to use photocopiers and fax machines.<ref name="日本の都市伝説大事典_p188"/><ref name="幸福のEメール_p25"/> Minor resurgences occurred from 1990–1992 and again in 1998.<ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p178"/><ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p180"/> In 1993, a Portuguese version circulated within Japan's Brazilian Japanese community, printed via word processor, mixing promises of lottery wins with threats of job loss or spousal death.<ref name="読売新聞19930925e_p10"/>

Social Reaction and Impact in Japan

Fukou no Tegami became a significant social problem, widely covered by media<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p91"/> and even becoming a buzzword in 1970.<ref name="世相を映す戦後の主な流行語一覧_p3"/> Police stations received numerous inquiries and complaints, with people bringing in letters, demanding action, or expressing fear.<ref name="朝日新聞19701031m_p24"/> A 1970 Sankei Shimbun survey found 75.6% of people knew about the letters, and 20.5% had received one. While nearly half (45.8%) dismissed them as "absurd", significant portions found them "infuriating" (28.9%), "creepy" (12.9%), or "anxiety-inducing" (4.4%). About half (49.3%) discarded them, but 17.4% admitted to forwarding them, particularly women (45% of female office workers surveyed).<ref name="意見と意識の百科事典_p47"/>

Anecdotes highlighted the distress caused: a woman forwarded one despite her husband's objections, leading to marital strife;<ref name="ヤングレディ8(16)_p142"/> another developed chronic hives after discarding one and becoming anxious;<ref name="現代医療4(5)_p510"/> people angrily confronted police or postal workers.<ref name="朝日新聞19701031m_p24"/> Magazine pen pal sections were inundated,<ref name="読売新聞19780620_p21"/> leading some, like the manga magazine Ribon, to shut down columns listing readers' addresses.<ref name="DPZ20171027"/> Occult magazine Mu received so many it started a "Fukou no Tegami Grand Collection" feature.<ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p178"/> In Saitama Prefecture alone, over 400 cases were reported to police by late 1986, with some individuals reportedly suffering nervous breakdowns.<ref name="埼玉県議会史12_p1907"/><ref name="埼玉県議会史12_p1602"/>

While many dismissed the letters, others were deeply troubled, caught between the fear of personal misfortune and the guilt of potentially inflicting it on others by forwarding the letter – a dilemma described as highlighting selfishness ("as long as I'm okay") versus conscience.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p92"/> Some admitted forwarding out of a "better safe than sorry" mentality,<ref name="上山市史別巻下_p286"/> while others likely sent them maliciously to disliked individuals or simply out of boredom or curiosity about the recipient's reaction.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p92"/><ref name="沖縄の風習と迷信_p170"/><ref name="沖縄の迷信_p248"/>

Prominent figures also received them. Actress Kimiko Ikegami received one in 1975, shortly before her grandfather, Bando Mitsugoro VIII, died unexpectedly, fueling public outrage against the letters.<ref name="明星19750216_p179"/><ref name="明星19750216_p180"/><ref name="実話ナックルズGOLD1_p82"/> In 1978, Koseki Kinko, wife of composer Yūji Koseki, wrote a widely publicized newspaper column urging people to simply destroy the letters, sharing her own experience of doing so without consequence and encouraging readers to face adversity positively.<ref name="読売新聞20200912e_p10"/><ref name="読売新聞19780615_p5"/><ref name="読売新聞19780620_p20"/><ref name="読売新聞20220930"/>

Expert Opinions on the Japanese Phenomenon

Experts offered various interpretations. Shinto scholar Kato Takahisa saw it revealing underlying societal anxiety despite modernization.<ref name="へそだんご_p6"/> Psychiatrist Shigeta Saitō called it symptomatic of the times, criticizing the "self-centered" impulse to pass on misfortune compared to earlier Lucky Letters.<ref name="新潮45_26(1)_p48"/><ref name="読売新聞19701126_p12"/> Sociologist Mita Munesuke termed it the "pass the buck" (ババ抜き, babanuki, like the card game Old Maid) mentality amplified.<ref name="読売新聞19701126_p12"/> Writer Nada Inada linked it to persistent superstition in modern society and the fear triggered by confronting the taboo subject of unhappiness.<ref name="読売新聞19701126_p12"/><ref name="朝日新聞19720501m_p20"/> Social psychologist Akira Tsujimura noted the unsettling effect of anonymity, the resonance with the ever-present reality of death, and its alignment with modern egoism.<ref name="大衆現象を解く_p122"/><ref name="大衆現象を解く_p124"/> Writer Kenichi Hatsumi recalled playing "unlucky letter games" as a child, suggesting a parody element existed alongside genuine fear.<ref name="ムー20191213"/> Shrine priest Ishikawa Masayasu pointed out how the letters exploit psychological weakness, trapping people between spreading harm and fearing personal consequences.<ref name="西日本新聞19910130e_p5"/>

Responses by Organizations in Japan

Various organizations stepped in to handle the letters and alleviate public anxiety:

• Police: Efforts included public awareness campaigns (Chiba urging letters be sent to the police chief,<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p104"/> Niigata advising disposal<ref name="広報こすど19750201"/>), setting up collection boxes (Kanagawa's "Shichifuku Post" meaning "Seven Fortunes Post,"<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p106"/><ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p104"/> Shiga's "Purification Boxes"<ref name="滋賀県議会史11_p694"/>), issuing warnings about potential prosecution for threats (Osaka),<ref name="沖縄の風習と迷信_p169"/><ref name="沖縄の迷信_p248"/> and offering to dispose of letters brought to stations (Tokyo).<ref name="朝日新聞19720501m_p20"/> However, prosecution was difficult as the content rarely met the legal definition of a threat.<ref name="朝日新聞19701031m_p24"/><ref name="読売新聞19780620_p20"/><ref name="滋賀県議会史11_p694"/><ref name="埼玉県議会史12_p1604"/>
• Post Offices: Initially handled refused letters as undeliverable,<ref name="講演時報1520_p16"/> but later some branches actively collected them for disposal, citing inability to screen mail beforehand due to privacy laws.<ref name="読売新聞19780620_p20"/> Initiatives included collection and incineration programs (Shiga, 1990;<ref name="中日新聞19900424m_p15"/> Saga instructing on refusal procedures;<ref name="西日本新聞19900624m_p22"/> Shizuoka, 1991<ref name="静岡新聞19911203m_p21"/><ref name="静岡新聞19920109m_p22"/>).
• Temples and Shrines: Many offered to collect and ritually dispose of the letters through burning ceremonies (kuyō). Notable examples include young monks at Mount Kōya (1971),<ref name="大乗22(2)_p72"/> Hase-dera in Tokyo (from 1977),<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p106"/><ref name="読売新聞19780620_p21"/> temples in Ise (1977),<ref name="中部財界20(5)_p80"/> temples in Matsumoto installing "Unlucky Letter Offering Boxes" (1977),<ref name="郵政19770901_p56"/> Shōzō-ji temple in Tokyo (accepting mail and later email),<ref name="散歩の達人5(2)_p88"/> Ikuta Shrine in Kobe (from 1970),<ref name="へそだんご_p4"/> Hikawa Shrine in Saitama (1971),<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p106"/> and Kōfuku Shrine ("Happiness Shrine") in Hyūga, which famously offered to "turn unlucky letters into tickets to happiness" and received thousands.<ref name="西日本新聞19900629m_p31"/><ref name="西日本新聞19900711m_p27"/><ref name="西日本新聞19900718m_p22"/><ref name="西日本新聞19910130e_p5"/><ref name="西日本新聞19920117m_p22"/>
• Collaboration: Some post offices partnered with temples for disposal, such as in Gifu (Hokkata Post Office sending collected letters to Tokurin-ji Temple in Nagoya for burning on Fumi no Hi (Letter Day), starting 1991)<ref name="朝日新聞19911021m_p23"/><ref name="中日新聞19911120m_p16"/><ref name="中日新聞19920715m_p16"/><ref name="中日新聞19940724m_p18"/><ref name="文化短信19950331_p46"/> and Kōchi (Kōchi Central Post Office setting up a dedicated P.O. Box "940" - a pun on kuyō - with letters ritually burned at Chikurin-ji Temple from 1995).<ref name="朝日新聞20000725_p24"/><ref name="朝日新聞19990724m_p31"/><ref name="六大新報3882(1)_p1"/>
• Others: Individuals publicly offered to receive letters (a Chiba salaryman collecting postmarks in 1970,<ref name="読売新聞19701126_p12"/> a Tokyo man collecting 2000 letters by 1978<ref name="読売新聞19780620_p21"/>). Radio host Yutaka Tonegawa invited listeners to send letters to him after hearing about a child's distress, arranging for disposal at Toyokawa Inari Tokyo Betsuin.<ref name="女性自身19(46)_p33"/> Music magazine Template:Proper name collected letters from readers.<ref name="朝日新聞19980516e_p15"/> A reader suggested an apotropaic ritual involving drawing a blue crescent moon over the address and tearing the letter into three pieces.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p106"/><ref name="朝日新聞19911022_p26"/>

Variations and Transformations in Print

Besides the standard Fukou no Tegami, variations emerged:

• Guinness Challenge Letters: In the 1990s, some chain letters disguised themselves as attempts to set a Guinness World Record for the longest chain, sometimes falsely claiming support from Scout groups.<ref name="読売新聞19921212m_p23"/><ref name="朝日新聞19891022m_p4"/><ref name="道新19890522m_p25"/> These often still contained veiled threats of misfortune for non-participation.<ref name="幸福のEメール_p25"/><ref name="幸福のEメール_p26"/> Guinness World Records publicly denied any involvement.<ref name="読売新聞19921212m_p23"/>
• Eveletter (エブレター, Eburetā): A variation promising romantic success or good fortune if forwarded, and misfortune or social loss if not.<ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p178"/><ref name="静岡県民俗学会誌19_p113"/>
• Template:External mediaStick Letter (棒の手紙, Bō no Tegami):
  File:Metamorphose from a letter of misfortune to a letter of sticks.svg

  Diagram showing the visual similarity leading to the misreading of "不幸" (fukō - unlucky) as "棒" (bō - stick) in handwritten Japanese
  A prominent mutation originating in the 1990s where the handwritten characters for "unlucky" (不幸, fukō) were misread or sloppily copied as the character for "stick" (棒, bō). Due to the instruction "do not change the text", this error was faithfully propagated, eventually becoming more common than the original "unlucky" version.<ref name="山本弘のSF秘密基地"/> These often contained specific, though fictional, details about victims (e.g., "Ms./Mr. XX of XX University was killed by Ms./Mr. XX for stopping it") and escalating requirements or warnings.<ref name="ムー20(11)_p80"/><ref name="ニッカン19971121_p28"/><ref name="朝日新聞19980516e_p15"/><ref name="朝日新聞19980719m_p25"/><ref name="高知新聞19980724m_p22"/> Poor handwriting led to further errors, like "handwritten or copy" (手書き、コピー可) becoming "予書、ヒピーも可" (gibberish).<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p108"/><ref name="読売新聞19971112m_p23"/> By 1997, photocopied and word-processed versions were common, introducing new errors like typos (e.g., "I am" 私は becoming 渡しは).<ref name="ニッカン19971121_p28"/> Writer Hiroshi Yamamoto analyzed these, noting internal contradictions (e.g., adding victim details violated the "do not change text" rule) and later fictionalized the phenomenon.<ref name="山本弘のSF秘密基地"/><ref name="妖魔夜行しかばね綺譚_p47"/> Scholar Maruyama Yasuaki links the "stick" error to the increasing prevalence of horizontal writing with the rise of personal computers, making the visual confusion between the characters more likely.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p108"/> The "Stick Letter" faded around 1998, likely due to accumulating errors rendering it nonsensical.<ref name="BuzzFeed20161011"/>

Email

File:Spam e-mail (Mobile phone).svg

Representation of an "Unlucky Mail" chain letter received on a mobile phone

Some email messages sent as chain letters may seem fairly harmless; for example, a school student wishing to see how many people can receive their email for a science project, but they can grow exponentially and be hard to stop. Infamously, the salacious Claire Swire email spread in a chain-like fashion when its recipient sought to learn Swire's identity.

Messages sometimes include phony promises from companies or wealthy individuals (such as Bill Gates) promising a monetary reward to everyone who receives the message.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They may also be politically motivated, such as "Save the Scouts, forward this to as many friends as possible"<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> or a warning that a popular TV or radio show may be forced off the air.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Some, such as the Hawaiian Good Luck Totem, which has spread in thousands of forms, threaten users with bad luck if not forwarded.<ref>Newton, Michael (2004). The encyclopedia of high-tech crime and crime-fighting. Template:Webarchive. p. 144.</ref> One chain letter distributed on MSN Hotmail began, "Hey it's Tara and John the directors of MSN..." and subsequently claimed readers' accounts would be deleted if they did not pass on the message.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Another common form of email chain letter is the virus hoax and a form of cyberbullying.

Email Chain Letters in Japan

With the rise of email and mobile phones, digital versions of Fukou no Tegami, known as "Fukou no Mail" (不幸のメール - Unlucky Mail), emerged.<ref name="幸福のEメール_p30"/> Early versions in the 1990s often lacked the elaborate justifications of printed letters, simply threatening death ("コロサレル," korosareru) or dire consequences ("タイヘンナコトニナル," taihen na koto ni naru) for not forwarding.<ref name="幸福のEメール_p30"/> By 1995, they were reported spreading within corporate email systems.<ref name="現代29(8)_p111"/> In 1999, widespread circulation via mobile phones and PHS was noted,<ref name="朝日新聞19990927e_p10"/> with messages like "Send this mail to 6 people within 5 days or die," "16 people who ignored this are dead," or "You will definitely die if you read this mail to the end."<ref name="ニッカン19990914_p28"/>

Later examples reported by the Japan Data Communication Association (DEKYO) include threats like: "My girlfriend disappeared. Forward this to 20 people to help find her. Anyone who stops the mail is the culprit and I will come kill them in 8 days,"<ref name="デ協20060515"/> "A girl named ■■ was bullied and committed suicide. Her ghost still wanders. If you don't send this to 15+ people, she will attack you,"<ref name="デ協20090501"/> or "My best friend ■■ betrayed me. I was hit by a car and lost both legs. Send this to 10 people in 10 hours, or I will come steal your legs."<ref name="デ協20100514"/> Particularly notorious were the "Kikuchi Ayane chain mail" (featuring a murdered girl's ghost seeking friends and her killer)<ref name="現代20220109_p3"/><ref name="日本現代怪異事典_p116"/> and the "Tachibana Ayumi chain mail" (claiming a friend was murdered and the sender would use phone location data to find and kill anyone who didn't forward the mail to enough people, assuming they were the culprit),<ref name="現代20220109_p3"/><ref name="ムー202304_p42"/> the latter appearing as early as 2001.<ref name="日本現代怪異事典_p228"/> Emails invoking revenge or ghosts seeking killers became common from late 1999 onwards,<ref name="散歩の達人5(2)_p88"/> sometimes influenced by popular horror like the movie Ring, leading to "Sadako mail" threatening curses from the film's antagonist.<ref name="新潮44(34)_p145"/> A lighter(?) example was the "Fukou no Takagi Boo" (Unlucky Takagi Boo) mail circulating among high school girls in 1998, claiming to reveal comedian Takagi Boo's phone number and threatening weight gain if not forwarded.<ref name="建設月報12(82)_p82"/><ref name="散歩の達人5(2)_p88"/><ref name="新潮44(34)_p145"/>

Forwarding such emails could have legal consequences; in 2000, a university student in Yamaguchi Prefecture was questioned by police on suspicion of intimidation for forwarding a threatening chain mail.<ref name="読売新聞20000830m_p31"/>

File:Survey results on Spam e-mail in Japan.svg

Analysis of chain mail types received by Japan Data Communication Association's "disposal" addresses (Jan-Dec 2008)

In response to the prevalence of these emails, in 2005 the Japan Data Communication Association set up dedicated email addresses (advertised as a "digital trash can") where people could forward unwanted chain mails for deletion.<ref name="中日新聞20050718m_p22"/><ref name="インプレス20050712"/> Within months, they received tens of thousands of emails, the majority being superstition-based chain letters.<ref name="読売新聞20051111m_p38"/> Analysis in 2008 found that 78% of emails received fell into the "luck/unluck" category (though many contained links to dating or adult sites).<ref name="デ協_調査結果"/> These disposal addresses remain active.<ref name="デ協202204"/><ref name="小学生から知っておきたいネットのルール_p103"/> Shōzō-ji temple in Tokyo also accepts unlucky emails, printing them out for ritual disposal.<ref name="散歩の達人5(2)_p88"/>

Web communities

File:Electronic spam (Social networking service).svg

Representation of a chain letter spreading via social networking services

Chain letters within social media platforms became widespread on Myspace (in the form of Myspace bulletins) and YouTube (in the form of video comments) as well as on Facebook through messages or applications. For instance, the chain post/email of Carmen Winstead,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> supposedly about a girl from Indiana who was pushed down a sewage drain in a fire drill, states that, "if you do not repost/send this to 10 people, Carmen will find you and kill you." Chain letters are often coupled with intimidating hoaxes or the promise of providing the sender with "secret" information once they have forwarded the message.

SNS and Forum Chain Messages in Japan

From around 2011, email chain letters declined in Japan, while similar messages spread via SNS.<ref name="日経新聞20181117"/> On Twitter (now X), this often takes the form of pressured retweets (now reposts), while on LINE, messages urge forwarding to a specific number of contacts.<ref name="ムー202304_p42"/> Common LINE examples since 2016 include: "Copy this and send to 10 people or misfortune will befall you," or "You received this because you're important to me. Send this to 20 people you truly like. If you don't, friends or lovers will leave you."<ref name="TVでた蔵20231212_p1"/><ref name="東洋経済20160604"/> The latter type, leveraging friendship anxiety, reportedly caused real friction when recipients felt pressured to forward, annoying their contacts.<ref name="日経パソコン803(1)_p1"/> Some include phone numbers to call "if you think it's fake," but these are often unrelated third-party numbers used for harassment, or sometimes linked to organized crime.<ref name="下野新聞20230921"/><ref name="高校生新聞20231101"/> Surveys indicate high exposure among Japanese teenagers, with many admitting to forwarding them.<ref name="CNET20231118"/> Online forums like Yahoo! Chiebukuro and Nifty Kids receive numerous相談 (sōdan - consultation) requests about these messages.<ref name="CNET20231118"/><ref name="ヤフー20220509"/><ref name="ftn20230925"/>

On Japanese imageboards and forums like 2channel (now 5channel), copy-paste chain messages also appear.<ref name="ムー202304_p42"/> One notable type emerged around 2002, involving narratives where the poster claims to be possessed or hunted by a malevolent entity (e.g., "Are" - "That Thing") and urges readers to spread the story to dilute the entity's focus, ending with statements like "If you want to increase your own survival probability, I recommend exposing this text to as many eyes as possible." These are sometimes called "self-responsibility type" (自己責任系, jiko sekinin kei) stories.<ref name="現代20220109_p5"/>

Template:External media Since around 2007, an image known as the "Hand of God" (神の手, Kami no Te)—depicting a hand-shaped cloud with sunbeams—has circulated frequently on Twitter and LINE in Japan.<ref name="インプレス20240315"/> Typically accompanied by text claiming that sending it to people you wish happiness upon will bring them good luck and grant wishes,<ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p20"/> the image has been flagged by security firms like G DATA Software as potentially linked to malware.<ref name="謎解き超常現象_p102"/><ref name="ITmedia20080321"/> (Meteorologists state such cloud formations are impossible;<ref name="AERA20080324_p58"/> the image likely originated as a doctored version of a shock image from Goatse.cx.<ref name="AERA20080324_p58"/><ref name="謎解き超常現象_p102"/>) The image gained renewed attention in 2021 when celebrities posted it on Instagram, prompting warnings.<ref name="インプレス20240315"/><ref name="J-CAST20210205"/> This "Hand of God" image represents a shift back towards positive "good luck" chains, albeit with potential security risks.<ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p20"/> Template:See also

On TikTok, sounds tagged "#いいことが起きる" (#GoodThingsWillHappen) gained popularity around 2022-2023, particularly among Japanese high school students, promising fulfilled wishes if used in posts.<ref name="numan2023-07-29"/><ref name="エキサイト20230729"/><ref name="ラジトピ20231214"/><ref name="ING20230406"/> These represent a further evolution towards positive, low-stakes chain-like phenomena, contrasting with the anxiety-inducing nature of Fukou no Tegami.<ref name="ラジトピ20231214"/>

While digital copying allows perfect replication, potentially halting the mutation seen in handwritten letters like the "Stick Letter,"<ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p180"/><ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p316"/> new forms and variations continue to emerge across different platforms, suggesting the underlying mechanisms of chain letters constantly adapt to new media.<ref name="現代20220109_p5"/><ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p20"/>

Reasons for Popularity

The enduring appeal and periodic surges in chain letter popularity have been linked to various factors:

• Societal Anxiety: Periods of social unrest or uncertainty are often cited. In Japan, the 1970s Fukou no Tegami boom coincided with events like the Yodo-go hijacking, Yukio Mishima's suicide, the Sanrizuka Struggle, and the Asama-Sansō incident.<ref name="カシマさんを追う_p174"/> Similarly, the 1920s Lucky Letter craze occurred amidst post-WWI turmoil, the 1918 Rice Riots, the Oomoto incident, and leading up to the Great Kanto Earthquake.<ref name="ムー20(11)_p82"/><ref name="ムー20231009"/>
• Psychological Factors: Exploiting common fears (misfortune, death, social exclusion) and desires (luck, wealth, connection).<ref name="大衆現象を解く_p124"/> The act of forwarding can provide a temporary sense of control or relief from anxiety, even if illogical.<ref name="朝日新聞20160312m_p3"/> Some analyses suggest Japanese cultural tendencies towards accepting fate might make such letters more potent than in some Western cultures.<ref name="朝日新聞20160312m_p3"/> For children, who lack adult coping mechanisms, forwarding can be a way to displace anxiety.<ref name="朝日新聞20160312m_p3"/>
• Cultural Context: In Japan, a strong post-war culture of letter writing, including widespread pen pal activities among students facilitated by organizations like the "Postal Friends Association" (郵便友の会, Yūbin Tomo no Kai), may have provided fertile ground.<ref name="まぼろしチャンネル_200308"/> The rise of New Age beliefs, occultism, and new religious movements in the 1990s may have coincided with later resurgences.<ref name="歴史読本31(3)_p180"/>
• Ease of Transmission: The shift from laborious handwritten copies to photocopies, faxes, and especially near-costless, instant digital forwarding (email, SNS) dramatically lowered the barrier to participation, enabling faster and wider spread.<ref name="中日新聞20050718m_p22"/><ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異2017_p110"/>

Relationship to Urban Legends

Chain letters often function as vectors for urban legends. The structure "learn this story/break this rule, suffer misfortune unless you pass it on to X people within Y time" is common to both.

In Japan, specific urban legends are thought to be influenced by or derived from Fukou no Tegami:

• Kashima-san (カシマさん): A legend popular around 1972 involving a vengeful female ghost (often legless). Hearing the story invites her appearance, but telling it to a certain number of people within a set time (e.g., 3 days) transfers the curse.<ref name="日本現代怪異事典_p89"/><ref name="日本現代怪異事典_p91"/><ref name="カシマさんを追う_p170"/> Early media reports explicitly compared Kashima-san to "Lucky Letters" (likely meaning the Fukou no Tegami type prevalent then), calling it a "word-of-mouth version".<ref name="実話ナックルズ20231228_p55"/><ref name="カシマさんを追う_p208"/><ref name="平凡パンチ9(34)_p56"/><ref name="謎解き都市伝説_p201"/><ref name="カシマさんを追う_p169"/><ref name="朝日新聞19721011m_p17"/> Some researchers propose Kashima-san originated as a narrative justification for the misfortune threatened by Fukou no Tegami, which then detached from the physical letter format as it spread orally.<ref name="カシマさんを追う_p174"/><ref name="実話ナックルズ20231228_p55"/>
• Sacchan (サッちゃん): A late 1990s chain mail legend claiming the popular children's song "Sacchan" has a hidden fourth verse revealing the titular girl died in a train accident in Hokkaido.<ref name="カシマさんを追う_p190"/> Learning this verse supposedly brings a curse, avoidable only by telling five people within three hours.<ref name="新潮44(34)_p145"/><ref name="日本現代怪異事典_p171"/> (The song's actual lyricist denied this backstory).<ref name="毎日新聞20061013e_p15"/><ref name="カシマさんを追う_p191"/><ref name="カシマさんを追う_p192"/>

The structural similarity—a contagious curse requiring propagation for the host's salvation—strongly suggests these legends adapted the chain letter mechanism.<ref name="現代20220109_p2"/><ref name="日本現代怪異事典_p329"/>

In popular culture

Chain letters, particularly the Fukou no Tegami type, have appeared in various fictional works, often reflecting societal awareness and anxieties surrounding them.

• In Fujiko F. Fujio's manga Doraemon, the 1977 story "Fukou no Tegami Dōkōkai" (不幸の手紙同好会 - Unlucky Letter Fan Club) features Nobita receiving a Fukou no Tegami. Distraught about passing on misfortune, he is helped by Doraemon, who uses a gadget (the "Postal Reverse Detector") to identify the sender (Suneo) and turn the tables.<ref name="学年別ドラえもん名作選4_p90"/><ref name="学年別ドラえもん名作選4_p92"/><ref name="歴史民俗博物館研究報告20120330_p314"/> Educational analyses of this story discuss the ethics of chain letters and compare Nobita's distress with Doraemon's dismissal as representing valid responses.<ref name="学年別ドラえもん名作選4_p197"/>
• In Fujiko Fujio A's manga Matarō ga Kuru!!, the story "Fukou no Tegami nado Kowakunai!!" (不幸の手紙などこわくない!! - Unlucky Letters Aren't Scary!) sees the bullied protagonist Mataro use supernatural powers to take revenge on the sender.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p92"/><ref name="魔太郎がくる20111005_220"/> Both Doraemon and Mataro portray bullied children overcoming the letter via extraordinary means, possibly reflecting the authors' own experiences with bullying.<ref name="モノと図像から探る怪異妖怪の東西_p92"/>
• In Jiro Tsunoda's manga Kyōfu Shinbun (恐怖新聞 - Terror Newspaper), the episode "Fukou no Tegami" depicts a boy who sends unlucky letters being punished by a ghost.<ref name="恐怖新聞4_p72"/> Notably, while using a supernatural element for retribution, the story strongly dismisses the power of the letters themselves as "lies" and "nonsense", urging readers not to believe in them.<ref name="恐怖新聞4_p19"/><ref name="ムー20231009"/> Both Fujiko works and Tsunoda's story ultimately condemn the letters and punish those who propagate them, perhaps reflecting the creators' desire to dispel children's fears.<ref name="ムー20231009"/>
• In Fujio Akatsuka's manga Tensai Bakabon, the 1974 story "Fukō no Pīnattsu no Tegami desu no da" (不幸のピーナッツの手紙ですのだ - It's the Unlucky Peanut Letter!) features letters accompanied by peanuts that supposedly cause death if eaten within 48 hours.<ref name="天才バカボン幸福論_p35"/><ref name="天才バカボン17_p83"/> (The story included a disclaimer that it was fiction and unrelated to any real peanuts, possibly anticipating complaints. Coincidentally, "peanuts" became slang for bribes during the Lockheed bribery scandals two years later).<ref name="天才バカボン幸福論_p35"/><ref name="朝日新聞19860722e_p3"/><ref name="マイナビ20160314"/>
• In Momoko Sakura's manga Chibi Maruko-chan, the story "Maruko Fukō no Tegami o Morau" (まる子 不幸の手紙をもらう - Maruko Gets an Unlucky Letter) shows the protagonist terrified after receiving one, until her father dismisses it and tears it up.<ref name="ちびまる子ちゃん8_p108"/><ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p18"/><ref name="マイナビ20220523"/> Given the setting and author's age, this likely reflects experiences from the 1970s boom.<ref name="非文字資料研究センター48_p18"/> Some commentators view the father's direct action as the best real-world response.<ref name="マイナビ20220523"/>
• The plot device in Koji Suzuki's novel Ring (and its adaptations), where watching a cursed videotape leads to death unless the viewer makes a copy and shows it to someone else, shares the core structure of chain letters: propagation is necessary to escape personal harm.<ref name="怖い話の本_p77"/> This similarity has been widely noted by critics,<ref name="現代20220109_p4"/><ref name="ホラー・ジャパネスクの現在_p81"/><ref name="怖い話の本_p78"/><ref name="現代宗教2024_p266"/><ref name="名刀中条スパパパパン_p12"/><ref name="BRUTUS44(16)_p63"/> and the novel itself makes the comparison.<ref name="怖い話の本_p77"/><ref name="リング_p110"/> The film's popularity reportedly influenced the framing of "unlucky emails" in the late 1990s, with recipients describing them as "like Ring" and specific "Sadako mail" variants emerging.<ref name="ニッカン19990914_p28"/><ref name="新潮44(34)_p145"/>

See also

• Copypasta
• Gratis Internet
• Jessica Mydek hoax letter
• Mail and wire fraud
• Make money fast
• Multi-level marketing
• Postcrossing
• Spam
• Virus hoax

Similar distribution

• Faxlore – distribution of chain-letters or similar material by fax machine

Further reading

• Template:Cite book
• Dean, Athena. All That Glitters Is Not Gold: Breaking Free from the Sweet Deceit of MLM, 1998, Winepress Publishing. Template:ISBN.
• Template:Cite book
• Squier, Dan. The Truth About Chain Letters, 1990, Premier Publishers. Template:ISBN.
• Tartaglia, Gary. Shattered Dreams: How to Avoid Costly Mistakes in Multi-level Marketing, 1985, Targeted Communications. Template:ISBN.
• Walsh, James. You Can't Cheat an Honest Man: How Ponzi Schemes & Pyramid Frauds Work, 1998, Merritt Publishing. Template:ISBN.
• Maruyama, Yasuaki (2012-03-30). 「幸運の手紙」についての一考察 (A Study on "Lucky Letters") (PDF). 国立歴史民俗博物館研究報告 (Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History), 174, 309–317. Template:In lang
• Maruyama, Yasuaki (2017). モノと図像から探る怪異・妖怪の東西 (Monsters and the Abnormal East and West: Exploring through Objects and Iconography). 勉誠出版. ISBN 978-4-585-23054-0. Template:In lang

External links

• A discussion of the history and various types of chain letters (from Snopes.com)
• An example of a "Send-a-dime" letter
• Break the chain Template:Webarchive
• Chain Letter Evolution, Daniel W. VanArsdale. A historical analysis, including an archive of actual letters.
• Pay the Thought Forward
• What's wrong with chain letters?
• Chain Mail Information Page (from Japan Data Communication Association) Template:In lang