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Transboundary protected area

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File:MK02244 Waterton Glacier International Peace Park.jpg
Flags of Canada and the United States in Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park

A transboundary protected area (TBPA) is an ecological protected area that spans boundaries of more than one country or sub-national entity. Such areas are also known as transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) or peace parks.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

TBPAs exist in many forms around the world,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and are established for various reasons. The preservation of traditional animal migration patterns, ensuring sufficient food and water sources for population growth, is a critical reason for the creation of TBPAs. However, TBPAs also encourage tourism, economic development and goodwill between neighbouring countries, as well as making it easier for indigenous inhabitants of the area to travel.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Nonspecific

Types of transboundary protected areasEdit

TBPAs exist in various types of geographic configuration, with various levels of ecological protection, and with various levels of international cooperation. Additionally, different organizations employ different definitions for TBPAs. Julia Marton-Lefevre broadly defines TBPAs as "areas that involve a degree of cooperation across one or more boundaries between (or within) countries."<ref name=":4" /> The Southern Africa Development Community's Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement defines Transfrontier Conservation Area as "the area or the component of a large ecological region that straddles the boundaries of two or more countries, encompassing one or more protected areas, as well as multiple resources use areas."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network (GTPAN) lists four types of "transboundary conservation areas:"

  • Type 1: transboundary protected area;
  • Type 2: transboundary conservation landscape and/or seascape;
  • Type 3: transboundary conservation migration area; and
  • Special designation: park for peace.<ref name=":5">Typology of Transboundary Conservation Areas Retrieved: 31 December 2016</ref>

GTPAN defines a transboundary protected area as "a clearly defined geographical space that includes protected areas that are ecologically connected across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation." GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation landscape and/or seascape as "an ecologically connected area that includes both protected areas and multiple resource use areas across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation."<ref name=":5" />

GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation migration area as "wildlife habitats in two or more countries that are necessary to sustain populations of migratory species and involve some form of cooperation."<ref name=":5" />

GTPAN defines a "park for peace" as "any of the three types of transboundary conservation areas [that is] dedicated to the promotion, celebration and/or commemoration of peace and cooperation."

In many instances, individual TBPAs are part of broader international environmental or cultural programs. TBPAs can be World Heritage Sites, Ramsar Wetlands, and/or UNESCO Biosphere Reserves.

History of transboundary protected areasEdit

In 1932, the governments of Canada and the United States passed legislation creating the first international peace park: Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. This action followed from a joint resolution of the Rotary Clubs of Montana and Alberta calling for the creation of the peace park.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

On 1 February 1997, Anton Rupert, together with Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands and Nelson Mandela, founded the Peace Parks Foundation as a nonprofit organisation to facilitate the establishment of transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

A 2001 study by the World Conservation Union found "there were 166 existing transboundary protected area complexes worldwide comprising 666 individual conservation zones."<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref>

In 2007, the Global Transboundary Conservation Network published a global inventory of transboundary protected areas identifying 227 transboundary protected areas.<ref name=tbpa2007> {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Established transboundary protected areasEdit

AfricaEdit

File:Natural wonders topic image Victoria falls.jpg
Victoria Falls--National Parks in Zambia and Zimbabwe form a TBPA.

Transboundary World Heritage SitesEdit

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|CitationClass=web }}</ref> The site is also designated as a Ramsar wetland<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and a UNESCO biosphere reserve.<ref name=":3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Transboundary Ramsar WetlandsEdit

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  • Niumi-Saloum is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Gambia and Senegal. It is composed of Niumi National Park in Gambia and Delta du Saloum National Park in Senegal.<ref name=":0" />
  • A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex covers Lake Chad, composed of sites in Niger, Chad, Nigeria, and Cameroon.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • Zone Humide du Moyen is a transfrontier Ramsar wetland on the border of Benin and Nigeria.<ref name=":0" />

Transboundary Biosphere ReservesEdit

  • Delta du Fleuve Senegal is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Mauritania and Senegal.<ref name=":3" />
  • Mono is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Benin and Togo.<ref name=":3" />

Transboundary Conservation ComplexesEdit

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  • Lower Zambezi - Mana Pools is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
  • Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Mozambique, South Africa and Eswatini.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
  • Malawi-Zambia TFCA is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Malawi and Zambia. It crosses the border at multiple locations.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
  • Niokolo Koba-Badiar is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Guinea and Senegal.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
  • Serengeti-Masai is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Kenya and Tanzania.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
  • A transboundary conservation complex crosses the border of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. It is composed partially of a Ramsar wetland in Burkina Faso and the National Park of Comoe in Côte d'Ivoire.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
    1. Liberia and Sierra Leone;
    2. Guinea and Liberia;
    3. Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia;
    4. Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana at three locations;
    5. Cameroon and Nigeria at two locations;
    6. Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea;
    7. Central African Republic and Sudan;
    8. Congo and Gabon;
    9. Democratic Republic of the Congo and what is now South Sudan;
    10. What is now South Sudan and Uganda;
    11. Kenya and Uganda;
    12. Kenya and Somalia;
    13. Burundi and Rwanda;
    14. Rwanda and Tanzania;
    15. Tanzania and Uganda;
    16. Tanzania and Zambia;
    17. Mozambique and Tanzania; and
    18. Angola and Namibia.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
File:Uvs nuur.jpg
Uvs Nuur Basin is a TBPA in Mongolia and Russia.

AsiaEdit

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  • Labi Hills/Gunung Pulu Transboundary Complex is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Brunei and Malaysia.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
  • The Lanjak Entimau/Batang/Ai/Betung Kerihun Complex is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Indonesia and Malaysia.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The countries have two additional TBPAs on their border.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
  • Taxkorgan is a transboundary protected area on the border of Afghanistan, China, and Pakistan. Afghanistan's Wahan National Park, China's Taxkorgan Nature Reserve, and Pakistan's Khunjerab National Park form the site.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
  • Template:AnchorThe Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> (TIHPA) is a marine protected area spanning part of Malaysia and the Philippines. The creation of a protected area for nesting was first recommended at the December 1993 First ASEAN Symposium-Workshop on Marine Turtle Conservation.<ref name=":12">Template:Cite journal</ref> Sea turtle egg production had declined by 88% due to over-fishing and habitat destruction,<ref name=":52">Template:Cite journal</ref> and a decision was made by both the Philippines and Malaysian governments to safeguard their rookeries.<ref name=":62">Template:Cite journal</ref> The establishment of the area occurred during a territorial dispute between the two countries over their maritime borders.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":22">Template:Cite journal</ref> On May 31, 1996, a memorandum of agreement was signed by the two governments and the area was formally established<ref name=":32">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":12" /> with three islands in Malaysia and six in the Philippines.<ref name=":22" /> The Malaysia government cleared their islands of people and created the Turtle Islands Park<ref name=":02">Template:Cite journal</ref> on October 1, 1997;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> the Philippines officially created the Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary to administer their islands in 1999.<ref name=":02" /> Both regions are administered primarily by their respective governments, though there is a joint management committee.<ref name=":62" /> The TIHPA is the largest turtle nesting area and only nesting area for the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) in ASEAN.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":42">Template:Citation</ref> When the site was established, it held the world's largest rookery;<ref name=":52" /> as of 2017, it had remained one of their most important nesting sites.<ref name=":42" /> The area also provides nesting sites for Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). In 2017, there were 34 species of birds, between 76 and 128 species of fish, 62 species of marine plants, 15 woody plants, and between 24 and 27 genera of corals. It also had snakes and monitor lizards.<ref name=":42" />
  • Uvs Nuur Basin is a World Heritage Site on the border of Mongolia and Russia covering Uvs Nuur Lake and protecting its wetlands.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> Mongolia and Russia have two more bilateral TBPAs on their border.<ref name=tbpa2007 />

File:Dalmatian Pelican and Great Cormorant in danube delta.jpg
The Danube Delta is a TBPA and home to pelicans and cormorants.

EuropeEdit

Transboundary World Heritage SitesEdit

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  • Muskauer Park/Park Muzakowski is a World Heritage Site on the border of Germany and Poland. The site preserves a historically significant landscape park originally created in the 19th century.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • Wadden Sea is a World Heritage Site running through the maritime territories of Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. It is composed of multiple national parks across the participating nations, covering the world's largest contiguous system of mudflats and intertidal sand. The Trilateral Cooperation on the Protection of the Wadden Sea coordinates the site's conservation.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> Wadden Sea is also designated as a transboundary Ramsar wetland.<ref name=":2" />

Transboundary Ramsar WetlandsEdit

  • Adutiškis-Vileity is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belarus and Lithuania.<ref name=":2" />
  • Austrian-Bavarian Wildalm is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Austria and Germany.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • Baradla Cave System and Domica Ramsar Sites are cooperatively managed transboundary wetlands on the border of Hungary and Slovakia. This was the first declaration of a transboundary wetland under the Ramsar Convention.<ref name=":0" />
  • Bistret-Ibisha Island is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Bulgaria and Romania. It is composed of Ibisha Island in Bulgaria and Bistret in Romania.<ref name=":2" />
  • Gornje Podunavije - Gemenc - Kopacki Rit is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Croatia, Hungary and Serbia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • Ipoly Valley and Poiplie are transboundary Ramsar wetlands on the border of Hungary and Slovakia.<ref name=":0" />
  • Kotra and Čepkelai are transboundary Ramsar wetlands on the border of Belarus and Lithuania.<ref name=":0" />
  • Krkonose/Karkonosze subalpine peatbogs is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of the Czech Republic and Poland.<ref name=":2" /> The site is also a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve.<ref name=":3" />
  • Lake Calarasi-Srebarna is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Bulgaria and Romania.<ref name=":2" /> Srebarna Nature Reserve is the Bulgarian component of this complex and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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Transboundary Biosphere ReservesEdit

Of the world's twenty transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserves, twelve are in Europe. Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Ukraine each contribute to three reserves.

  • Danube Delta is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Romania and Ukraine.<ref name=":3" />
  • East Carpathians is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Poland, Slovakia, and Ukraine.<ref name=":3" />
  • Geres - Xures is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.<ref name=":3" />
  • Meseta Iberica is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.<ref name=":3" />
  • Mont Viso / Area della Biosfera del Monviso is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Italy.<ref name=":3" />
  • Mura Drava Danube is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Croatia and Hungary.<ref name=":3" />
  • Tatra is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Slovakia and Poland.<ref name=":3" />
  • Tejo/Tajo Internacional is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.
  • Vosges du Nord / Pfalzerwald is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Germany.<ref name=":3" />
  • West Polesie is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the borders of Belarus, Poland, and Ukraine.<ref name=":3" />

Transboundary Conservation ComplexesEdit

North AmericaEdit

File:Peace arch Canada-US border.jpg
Flags of Canada and the United States fly on the Peace Arch in Peace Arch Park.

Canada and the United StatesEdit

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|CitationClass=web }}</ref> In contrast to other peace parks, the primary purpose of the union was to serve as a symbol of friendship and peace between the two countries.<ref name="Campobello">Template:Cite news</ref>

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Canadian interprovincial ParksEdit

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United States interstate parksEdit
  • Interstate Park (Minnesota–Wisconsin)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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Mexico and the United StatesEdit

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Latin AmericaEdit

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  • Parque Internacional La Amistad is a UNESCO World Heritage Site on the border of Costa Rica and Panama. A bi-national Transboundary Protected Area Commission coordinates conservation efforts in the area.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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|CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Global Transboundary Conservation Network includes this site as part of Parque International La Amsted in its 2007 global inventory.<ref name=tbpa2007 />

  • A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex lies on the on border of Belize and Guatemala, and is composed of Belize's Reserva de Usos Multiples Rio Sarstun and Guatemala's Sarstoon Temash National Park.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
    1. Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico;
    2. Guatemala and Honduras; and
    3. Honduras and Nicaragua at two locations.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
File:Iguacu-002.jpg
Iguazu Falls--National Parks in Argentina and Brazil form a TBPA.

|CitationClass=web }}</ref> The countries agreed to create the protected area as part of a settlement to a border conflict in the 1990s.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

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  • Lago Titicaca is a transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex on the border of Bolivia and Peru.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
    1. Colombia and Venezuela;
    2. Brazil and Colombia;
    3. Colombia, Ecuador and Peru;
    4. Brazil and Venezuela;
    5. French Guiana and Suriname;
    6. Brazil and Suriname;
    7. Brazil and Peru;
    8. Bolivia and Brazil;
    9. Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay;
    10. Argentina and Brazil;
    11. Bolivia and Chile;
    12. Argentina, Bolivia and Chile;
    13. Argentina and Bolivia at two locations;
    14. Bolivia and Paraguay; and
    15. Argentina and Chile at four locations.<ref name=tbpa2007 />
File:Reserva de la biosfera intercontinental del Mediterráneo.svg
Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean includes land in Morocco and Spain (light green), and part of the Strait of Gibraltar (dark blue).

Intercontinental TBPAsEdit

  • Great Altay is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Kazakhstan and Russia.<ref name=":3" />
  • Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere crossing the border of Morocco and Spain. It is a contiguous site, combining land in Morocco and Spain connected by the Strait of Gibraltar.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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  • A transboundary UNESCO World Heritage complex is on the border of Colombia and Panama. It is composed primarily of Colombia's Los Katios National Park and Panama's Darien National Park.<ref name=tbpa2007 /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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Areas in the conceptual phaseEdit

File:Ursus thibetanus 3 (Wroclaw zoo).JPG
The DMZ is a habitat for many threatened species on the Korean peninsula, including the black bear.

TBPA advocates by 2006 had identified additional sites for protection. Professor Saleem Ali of the University of Vermont noted that "numerous ecologically sensitive areas remain unprotected" and cites a 2006 "geographic information systems (GIS) study" that "found 104 transboundary wild areas involving 61 countries that are not formally part of any conservation park."<ref name=":4" /> Specific sites for proposed TBPAs include:

As awareness of the importance of conserving the pristinity and ecology of Arctic region has increased,Template:According to whom there has been a global call to declare the Arctic region as a global sanctuary/international peace park. The Save the Arctic<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> campaign by Greenpeace, an environmental nonprofit organisation, has received online support from more than 5 million citizens from around the world.

Areas with treaty signedEdit

Memorandums of agreement signedEdit

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Impacts on peace and conflictEdit

Transboundary protected areas are also termed peace parks. They are supposed to facilitate cooperation and exchange between (adversary) countries, to improve livelihoods of local populations, to demonstrate the possibility of positive-sum interactions, and hence to support more peaceful international relations.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> There are several cases documented in which trans-boundary conservation contributed to conflict resolution (although it was not the main driver), such as in the Virunga region between the DR Congo, Rwanda and Uganda,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> around the Trifinio region between El Salvador and Honduras,<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> and in the Cordillera del Cóndor region between Ecuador and Peru.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to a statistical analysis published in 2014, states that share a trans-boundary protected area are slightly less likely to engage with militarized disputes with each other. But the question remains whether the TBPA is a driver or consequence on better interstate relations in these cases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A more recent analysis triangulates data from various sources to show that international environmental cooperation (in the form of TBPAs and water treaties) increases the likelihood for reconciliation between states in conflict. The effect is, however, modest and contingent on a number of context factors such as high levels of environmental attention, internal political stability, a tradition of environmental cooperation and already ongoing processes of reconciliation.<ref name=":6" />

However, a number of authors criticize that peace parks have a very limited impact on formal relations between states, but can accelerate conflicts on the local level, for instance by extending (authoritarian) state control, by prioritizing business and tourism over the interests of local populations, and by excluding local people from the protected areas.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> TBPAs can also stimulate (low-level) international conflicts, for instance about the sharing of revenues or the presence of human populations in the parks.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and ManagementEdit

A Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and Management was developed by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD), its Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative in partnership with UNDP and the NBSAP Forum. This free three-week course offered in five languages: English, French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic. Financial support is provided by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity's Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative funded by the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea.

This course will:

  • offer a comprehensive guide on Peace Park establishment;
  • teach participants to make a strong case for Peace Park development;
  • develop the skills to effectively plan, establish and manage Peace Parks;
  • address the challenges associated with the creation and management of these transboundary protected areas.

The course is designed for Peace Park development practitioners and environmental peacebuilding enthusiasts but is open to everyone.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Participants must create an account on Learning for Nature before registering for the course.

See alsoEdit

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ReferencesEdit

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External linksEdit

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