A humanoid robot is a robot resembling the human body in shape. The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of bipedal locomotion, or for other purposes. In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some humanoid robots may replicate only part of the body. Androids are humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble humans.
HistoryEdit
The concept of a humanoid robot originated in many different cultures around the world. Some of the earliest accounts of the idea of humanoid automata date to the 4th century BCE in Greek mythologies and various religious and philosophical texts from China. Physical prototypes of humanoid automata were later created in the Middle East, Italy, Japan, France and South Korea.
GreeceEdit
The Greek god of blacksmiths, Hephaestus, created several different humanoid automata in various myths. In Homer's Iliad, Hephaestus created golden handmaidens and imbued them with human-like voices to serve as speaking tools or instruments.<ref name=":7">Template:Cite book</ref> Another Greek myth details how Hephaestus crafted a giant bronze automaton named Talos to protect the island of Crete from invaders.<ref name=":8">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ChinaEdit
In the 3rd century BCE, a Taoist philosophical text called the Liezi, written by Chinese philosopher Lie Yukou, detailed the idea of a humanoid automaton. The text includes mention of an engineer named Yan Shi who created a life-size, human-like robot for the fifth king of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty, King Mu.<ref name=":9">Template:Cite book</ref> The robot was primarily constructed of leather and wood. It was capable of walking, singing, and moving all parts of its body.<ref name=":9" />
Middle EastEdit
In the 13th century, a Muslim engineer named Ismail al-Jazari designed various humanoid automata. He created a waitress robot that would dispense drinks from a liquid reservoir and appear out of an automatic door to serve them.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Another automaton he created was used for hand washing to refill a basin with water after being drained.<ref name="Rosheim22">Template:Cite book</ref>
ItalyEdit
In the 1400s, Leonardo da Vinci conceptualized a complex mechanical robot clad in a suit of armor, capable of sitting, standing, and independently moving its arms.<ref name=":11">Template:Cite journal</ref> The entire robot was operated by a system of pulleys and cables.
JapanEdit
From the 17th to 19th centuries, the Japanese built humanoid automata called karakuri puppets. These puppets resembled dolls and were used for entertainment in theatre, homes, and religious festivals.<ref name=":12">Template:Cite book</ref> Karakuri puppets that were used for theater plays were called butai karakuri.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> Small karakuri puppets found in homes, called zashiki kurakuri, were placed on tables to dance, beat drums, or serve drinks.<ref name=":1" /> The puppets used in religious festivals were known as Dashi karakuri, and they served to reenact myths and legends.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
FranceEdit
In the 18th century, French inventor Jacques de Vaucanson created a significant humanoid automaton called The Flute Player. This wooden, human-sized robot was capable of playing various melodies with the flute. It consisted of a system of bellows, pipes, weights, and other mechanical components to simulate to the muscles necessary to play the flute.<ref name=":13">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
South KoreaEdit
KAIST's research team developed Hubo, South Korea's first humanoid robot, and Professor Oh Jun-ho, who led the team, founded Rainbow Robotics in 2011.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2025, South Korean government formed the K-Humanoid Alliance, an alliance of the companies, researchers, and talents.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
ApplicationsEdit
Humanoid robots are now used as research tools in several scientific areas. Researchers study the human body structure and behavior (biomechanics) to build humanoid robots. On the other side, the attempt to simulate the human body leads to a better understanding of it. Human cognition is a field of study which is focused on how humans learn from sensory information in order to acquire perceptual and motor skills. This knowledge is used to develop computational models of human behavior, and it has been improving over time.
It has been suggested that very advanced robotics will facilitate the enhancement of ordinary humans. See transhumanism.
Medical and researchEdit
Humanoid robots are a valuable resource in the world of medicine and biotechnology, as well as other fields of research such as biomechanics and cognitive science.<ref name=":32">Template:Cite book</ref> Humanoid robots are being used to develop complex prosthetics for individuals with physical disabilities such as missing limbs.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref> The WABIAN-2 is a new medical humanoid robot created to help patients in the rehabilitation of their lower limbs.<ref name=":4" />
Although the initial aim of humanoid research was to build better orthosis and prosthesis for human beings, knowledge has been transferred between both disciplines. A few examples are powered leg prosthesis for the neuromuscularly impaired, ankle-foot orthosis, biological realistic leg prosthesis, and forearm prosthesis.
Humanoid robots can be used as test subjects for the practice and development of personalized healthcare aids, essentially performing as robotic nurses for demographics such as the elderly.<ref name=":4" /> Humanoids are also suitable for some procedurally-based vocations, such as reception-desk administrators and automotive manufacturing line workers. In essence, since they can use tools and operate equipment and vehicles designed for the human form, humanoids could theoretically perform any task a human being can, so long as they have the proper software. However, the complexity of doing so is immense.
EntertainmentEdit
Humanoid robots have had a long history in the realm of entertainment, from the conception and ideas in the story of Prometheus to the application and physical build of modern animatronics used for theme parks.<ref name=":32"/> Current uses and development of humanoid robots in theme parks are focused on creating stuntronics.<ref name=":5">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Stuntronics are humanoid robots built for serving as stunt doubles, and are designed to simulate life-like, untethered, dynamic movement.<ref name=":5" /> Several Disney theme park shows utilize animatronic robots that look, move and speak much like human beings. Although these robots look realistic, they have no cognition or physical autonomy. Various humanoid robots and their possible applications in daily life are featured in an independent documentary film called Plug & Pray, which was released in 2010.
DemonstrativeEdit
Though many real-world applications for humanoid robots are unexplored, their primary use is to demonstrate up-and-coming technologies.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> Modern examples of humanoid robots, such as the Honda Asimo, are revealed to the public in order to demonstrate new technological advancements in motor skills, such as walking, climbing, and playing an instrument.<ref name=":6" /> Other humanoid robots have been developed for household purposes, however excel only in single purpose skills and are far from autonomous.<ref name=":6" /> Humanoid robots, especially those with artificial intelligence algorithms, could be useful for future dangerous and/or distant space exploration missions, without having the need to turn back around again and return to Earth once the mission is completed.
SensorsEdit
A sensor is a device that measures some attribute of the world. Being one of the three primitives of robotics (besides planning and control), sensing plays an important role in robotic paradigms.
Sensors can be classified according to the physical process with which they work or according to the type of measurement information that they give as output. In this case, the second approach was used.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ProprioceptiveEdit
Proprioceptive sensors sense the position, orientation, and speed of the humanoid's body and joints, along with other internal values.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In human beings, the otoliths and semi-circular canals (in the inner ear) are used to maintain balance and orientation.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Additionally, humans use their own proprioceptive sensors (e.g. touch, muscle extension, limb position) to help with their orientation. Humanoid robots use accelerometers to measure the acceleration, from which velocity can be calculated by integration;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> tilt sensors to measure inclination; force sensors placed in robot's hands and feet to measure contact force with environment;<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> position sensors that indicate the actual position of the robot (from which the velocity can be calculated by derivation);<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and even speed sensors.
ExteroceptiveEdit
Arrays of tactels can be used to provide data on what has been touched. The Shadow Hand uses an array of 34 tactels arranged beneath its polyurethane skin on each finger tip.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Tactile sensors also provide information about forces and torques transferred between the robot and other objects.
Vision refers to processing data from any modality which uses the electromagnetic spectrum to produce an image. In humanoid robots it is used to recognize objects and determine their properties. Vision sensors work most similarly to the eyes of human beings. Most humanoid robots use CCD cameras as vision sensors.
Sound sensors allow humanoid robots to hear speech and environmental sounds, akin to the ears of the human being. Microphones are usually used for the robots to convey speech.
ActuatorsEdit
Actuators are the motors responsible for motion in the robot.<ref name=":20">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body. They use actuators that perform like muscles and joints, though with a different structure.<ref name=":20" /> The actuators of humanoid robots can be either electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic.<ref name=":21">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":22">Template:Cite book</ref> It is ideal for these actuators to have high power, low mass, and small dimensions.<ref name=":22" />
ElectricEdit
Electric actuators are the most popular types of actuators in humanoid robots.<ref name=":21" /> These actuators are smaller in size, and a single electric actuator may not produce enough power for a human-sized joint.<ref name=":21" /> Therefore, it is common to use multiple electric actuators for a single joint in a humanoid robot.<ref name=":21" /> An example of a humanoid robot using electric actuators is HRP-2.<ref name=":22" />
HydraulicEdit
Hydraulic actuators produce higher power than electric actuators and pneumatic actuators, and they have the ability to control the torque they produce better than other types of actuators.<ref name=":22" /> However, they can become very bulky in size.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /> One solution to counter the size issue is electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA).<ref name=":22" /> The most popular example of a humanoid robot using hydraulic actuators is the ATLAS robot made by Boston Dynamics.<ref name=":22" />
PneumaticEdit
Pneumatic actuators operate on the basis of gas compressibility.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /> As they are inflated, they expand along the axis, and as they deflate, they contract. If one end is fixed, the other will move in a linear trajectory. A popular example of a pneumatic actuator is the Mac Kibben muscle.<ref name=":22" />
Planning and controlEdit
Planning in robots is the process of planning out motions and trajectories for the robot to carry out.<ref name=":14">Template:Cite journal</ref> Control is the actual execution of these planned motions and trajectories.<ref name=":14" /> In humanoid robots, the planning must carry out biped motions, meaning that robots should plan motions similar to a human.<ref name=":15">Template:Cite book</ref> Since one of the main uses of humanoid robots is to interact with humans, it is important for the planning and control mechanisms of humanoid robots to work in a variety of terrain and environments.<ref name=":15" />
The question of walking biped robots stabilization on the surface is of great importance.<ref name=":19">Template:Cite journal</ref> Maintenance of the robot's gravity center over the center of bearing area for providing a stable position can be chosen as a goal of control.<ref name=":19" />
To maintain dynamic balance during the walk, a robot needs information about contact force and its current and desired motion.<ref name=":15" /> The solution to this problem relies on a major concept, the Zero Moment Point (ZMP).<ref name=":15" />
Another characteristic of humanoid robots is that they move, gather information (using sensors) on the "real world", and interact with it.<ref name=":16">Template:Cite journal</ref> They do not stay still like factory manipulators and other robots that work in highly structured environments.<ref name=":16" /> To allow humanoids to move in complex environments, planning and control must focus on self-collision detection, path planning and obstacle avoidance.<ref name=":16" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Humanoid robots do not yet have some features of the human body.<ref name=":17">Template:Cite book</ref> They include structures with variable flexibility, which provide safety (to the robot itself and to the people), and redundancy of movements, i.e. more degrees of freedom and therefore wide task availability.<ref name=":17" /> Although these characteristics are desirable to humanoid robots, they will bring more complexity and new problems to planning and control.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The field of whole-body control deals with these issues and addresses the proper coordination of numerous degrees of freedom, e.g. to realize several control tasks simultaneously while following a given order of priority.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Timeline of developmentsEdit
| Year | Subject | Notes | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Circa | Automaton | A humanoid automaton is detailed in the Liezi, written by Chinese philosopher Lie Yukou.<ref name=":9" /> | ||
| Template:Circa | Automata | Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria described a machine that automatically pours wine for party guests.<ref>Hero of Alexandria; Bennet Woodcroft (trans.) (1851). Temple Doors opened by Fire on an Altar. Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria. London: Taylor Walton and Maberly (online edition from University of Rochester, Rochester, NY). Retrieved on 2008-04-23.</ref> | ||
| 1206 | Ismail Al-Jazari described a band made up of humanoid automata which, according to Charles B. Fowler, performed "more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection."<ref>Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967), "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments", Music Educators Journal 54 (2): 45-9</ref> Al-Jazari also created hand-washing automata with automatic humanoid servants.<ref name="Rosheim22"/> His programmable "castle clock" also featured five musician automata which automatically played music when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaft attached to a water wheel.<ref name="Ancient Discoveries2">Template:Cite AV media</ref> | |||
| 1495 | Leonardo's robot | Leonardo da Vinci designs a humanoid automaton clad in a suit of knight's armor and operated by pulleys and cables.<ref name=":11" /> | ||
| 1738 | The Flute Player | Jacques de Vaucanson builds The Flute Player, a life-size automaton capable of playing different melodies on the flute.<ref name=":13" /> | ||
| 1774 | Pierre Jacquet-Droz and his son Henri-Louis created the Draughtsman, the Musicienne and the Writer, a figure of a boy that could write messages up to 40 characters long.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 1898 | Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrates his "automaton" technology by wirelessly controlling a model boat at the Electrical Exposition held at Madison Square Garden in New York City during the height of the Spanish–American War.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 1921 | Czech writer Karel Čapek introduced the word "robot" in his play R.U.R. (which stands for "Rossum's Universal Robots"). The word "robot" comes from the word "robota", meaning, in Czech and Polish, "labour, drudgery".<ref name="robotics.megagiant.com2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 1927 | Maschinenmensch | The ("machine-human"), a gynoid humanoid robot, also called "Parody", "Futura", "Robotrix", or the "Maria impersonator" (played by German actress Brigitte Helm), one of the earliest humanoid robots ever to appear on film, is depicted in Fritz Lang's film Metropolis. | ||
| 1928 | Eric | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 1939 | Elektro | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 1941-42 | Three Laws of Robotics | Isaac Asimov formulates the Three Laws of Robotics, used in his robot science fiction stories, and in the process of doing so, coins the word "robotics".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 1948 | Cybernetics | Norbert Wiener formulates the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Page needed</ref> | ||
| 1961 | Unimate | The first digitally operated and programmable non-humanoid robot, is installed on a General Motors assembly line to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. It was created by George Devol and constructed by Unimation, the first robot manufacturing company.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 1967 to 1972 | WABOT-1 | Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967, and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1, the world's first full-scale humanoid intelligent robot.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It was the first android, able to walk, communicate with a person in Japanese (with an artificial mouth), measure distances and directions to the objects using external receptors (artificial ears and eyes), and grip and transport objects with hands.<ref name="androidworld.com2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref>Robots: From Science Fiction to Technological Revolution, page 130</ref><ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Page needed</ref> |
| 1969 | D.E. Whitney publishes his article "Resolved motion rate control of manipulators and human prosthesis".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> | |||
| 1970 | Zero Moment Point | Miomir Vukobratović proposed a theoretical model to explain bipedal locomotion.<ref>Vukobratović CVTemplate:Dead link</ref> | ||
| 1972 | Powered exoskeleton | Miomir Vukobratović and his associates at Mihajlo Pupin Institute build the first active anthropomorphic exoskeleton.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 1980 | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 1983 | Greenman | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 1984 | WABOT-2 | At Waseda University, the WABOT-2 is created, a musician humanoid robot able to communicate with a person, read a normal musical score with his eyes and play tunes of average difficulty on an electronic organ.<ref name="androidworld.com2" /> | ||
| 1985 | WHL-11 | Developed by Hitachi Ltd, WHL-11 is a biped robot capable of static walking on a flat surface at 13 seconds per step and it can also turn.<ref name="androidworld.com2" /> | ||
| 1986 | Honda E series | Honda developed seven biped robots which were designated E0 (Experimental Model 0) through E6. E0 was in 1986, E1 – E3 were done between 1987 and 1991, and E4 - E6 were done between 1991 and 1993.<ref name="honda.co.jp2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 1989 | Manny | A full-scale anthropomorphic robot with 42 degrees of freedom developed at Battelle's Pacific Northwest Laboratories in Richland, Washington, for the US Army's Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. It could not walk on its own but it could crawl, and had an artificial respiratory system to simulate breathing and sweating.<ref name="androidworld.com2" /> | ||
| 1990 | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 1993 | Honda P series | Honda developed P1 (Prototype Model 1) through P3, an evolution from E series, with upper limbs. Developed until 1997.<ref name="honda.co.jp2" /> | ||
| 1995 | Hadaly | Developed in Waseda University to study human-robot communication and has three subsystems: a head-eye subsystem, a voice control system for listening and speaking in Japanese, and a motion-control subsystem to use the arms to point toward campus destinations.<ref name=":18">Template:Cite journal</ref> | ||
| 1995 | Wabian | A human-size biped walking robot from Waseda University.<ref name=":18" /> | ||
| 1996 | Saika | A light-weight, human-size and low-cost humanoid robot, was developed at Tokyo University. Saika has a two-DOF neck, dual five-DOF upper arms, a torso and a head. Several types of hands and forearms are under development also. Developed until 1998.<ref name="androidworld.com2" /> | ||
| Vanderbilt Humanoid | The Intelligent Robotics Lab built ISAC (Intelligent Soft Arm Control) robot uses Bridgestone Robotics arms. The Bridgestone robotic arm uses pneumatic-actuated chambers to simulate the human-muscle contraction and expansion. In 1995, the two arms were augmented with a mechanical "head" called CATCH (Cost-effective Active Camera Head). CATCH was built by a graduate student,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> then used for autonomous navigation and put on the two arms to create the third humanoid in the World after Honda's Asimo and MIT's COG. | |||
| 1997 | Hadaly-2 | A humanoid robot designed in Waseda University which realizes interactive communication with humans. It communicates not only informationally, but also physically.<ref name=":18" /> | ||
| 2000 | ASIMO | Honda creates its 11th bipedal humanoid robot, able to run.<ref name="honda.co.jp2" /> | ||
| Xianxingzhe | The National University of Defense Technology creates the first bipedal humanoid robot in China. | |||
| 2001 | Qrio | Sony unveils small humanoid entertainment robots, dubbed Sony Dream Robot (SDR). Renamed Qrio in 2003.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| HOAP | Fujitsu realized its first commercial humanoid robot named HOAP-1. Its successors, HOAP-2 and HOAP-3, were announced in 2003 and 2005, respectively. HOAP is designed for a broad range of applications for R&D of robot technologies.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2002 | HRP-2 | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 2003 | JOHNNIE | An autonomous biped walking robot built at the Technical University of Munich. The main objective was to realize an anthropomorphic walking machine with a human-like, dynamically stable gait.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Actroid | A robot with realistic silicone "skin" developed by Osaka University in conjunction with Kokoro Company Ltd.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2004 | Persia | Iran's first humanoid robot, was developed using realistic simulation by researchers of Isfahan University of Technology in conjunction with ISTT.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| KHR-1 | A programmable bipedal humanoid robot introduced in June 2004 by a Japanese company Kondo Kagaku. | |||
| 2005 | HUBO | A walking humanoid robot developed by Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in January 2005. | ||
| PKD Android | A conversational humanoid robot made in the likeness of science fiction novelist Philip K Dick, was developed as a collaboration between Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology, and the University of Memphis.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Wakamaru | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Actroid | The Geminoid series is a series of ultra-realistic humanoid robots developed by Hiroshi Ishiguro of ATR and Kokoro in Tokyo. The original one, Geminoid HI-1, was made at its image. Followed Geminoid-F in 2010 and Geminoid-DK in 2011.<ref name="aldebaran2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2006 | Nao | A small open source programmable humanoid robot developed by Aldebaran Robotics, in France. Widely used by worldwide universities as a research platform and educational tool.<ref name="aldebaran2" /> | ||
| REEM-A | The first fully autonomous European biped humanoid robot, designed to play chess with the Hydra Chess engine. The first robot developed by PAL Robotics, it was also used as a walking, manipulation, speech and vision development platform.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| iCub | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Mahru | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2007 | TOPIO | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Twendy-One | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2008 | Justin | A humanoid robot developed by the German Aerospace Center (DLR).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Nexi | The first mobile, dexterous, and social robot, makes its public debut as one of TIME magazine's top inventions of the year.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The robot was built through a collaboration between the MIT Media Lab Personal Robots Group,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> UMass Amherst and Meka Robotics.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
| Salvius | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| REEM-B | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Surena | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2009 | HRP-4C | A Japanese domestic robot made by National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, shows human characteristics in addition to bipedal walking.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Kobian | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| DARwIn-OP | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2010 | Robonaut 2 | A very advanced humanoid robot by NASA and General Motors. It was part of the payload of Shuttle Discovery on the successful launch February 24, 2011. It is intended to do spacewalks for NASA.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| HRP-4C | National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology demonstrate their humanoid robot singing and dancing along with human dancers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| REEM | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2011 | ASIMO | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 2012 | NimbRo | The Autonomous Intelligent Systems Group of University of Bonn, Germany, introduces the Humanoid TeenSize Open Platform NimbRo-OP.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> | ||
| 2013 | TORO | The German Aerospace Center (DLR) presents the humanoid robot TORO (TOrque-controlled humanoid RObot).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| On December 20–21, 2013, DARPA Robotics Challenge ranked the top 16 humanoid robots competing for the US$2 million cash prize. The leading team, SCHAFT, with 27 out of a possible score of 30 was bought by Google.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |||
| REEM-C | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Poppy | The first open-source 3D-printed humanoid robot. Bio-inspired, with legs designed for biped locomotion. Developed by the Flower Departments at INRIA.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2014 | Manav | India's first 3D printed humanoid robot developed in the laboratory of A-SET Training and Research Institutes by Diwakar Vaish (head Robotics and Research, A-SET Training and Research Institutes).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Pepper robot | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Nadine | A female humanoid social robot designed in Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, and modelled on its director Professor Nadia Magnenat Thalmann. Nadine is a socially intelligent robot which returns greetings, makes eye contact, and remembers all the conversations it has had.<ref>J. Zhang J, N. Magnenat Thalmann and J. Zheng, Combining Memory and Emotion With Dialog on Social Companion: A Review, Proceedings of the ACM 29th International Conference on Computer Animation and Social Agents (CASA 2016), pp. 1-9, Geneva, Switzerland, May 23–25, 2016</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> | |||
| 2016 | Sophia | A humanoid robot developed by "Hanson Robotics", Hong Kong, and modelled after Audrey Hepburn. Sophia has artificial intelligence, visual data processing and facial recognition.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> | ||
| OceanOne | Developed by a team at Stanford University, led by computer science professor Oussama Khatib, OceanOne completed its first mission, diving for treasure in a shipwreck off the coast of France, at a depth of 100 meters. The robot is controlled remotely, has haptic sensors in its hands, and artificial intelligence capabilities.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2017 | TALOS | PAL Robotics launches TALOS,<ref>Template:Citation</ref> a fully electrical humanoid robot with joint torque sensors and EtherCAT communication technology that can manipulate up to 6 kg payload in each of its grippers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 2018 | Rashmi Robot | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| 2020 | Digit | On January 5, 2020 Agility Robotics introduced the first version of Digit, their humanoid robot, initially purchased by Ford Motor Company for research into autonomous last-mile delivery.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Vyommitra | A female-looking spacefaring humanoid robot being developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation to function on board the Gaganyaan, a crewed orbital spacecraft.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Robot Shalu | Homemade Artificially Intelligent, Indian Multilingual Humanoid Robot, made-up of waste materials, that can speak 9 Indian and 38 foreign languages (total 47 languages), developed by Dinesh Kunwar Patel, Computer Science teacher, Kendriya Vidyalaya Mumbai, India. Shalu can recognize a person and remember them, identify many objects, solve mathematical problems, give horoscopes and weather reports, teach in a classroom, conduct a quiz, and do many other things.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> | |||
| 2022 | Ameca | In January 2022 Engineered Arts Ltd gave the first public demonstration of their humanoid robot Ameca.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Optimus | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2023 | Digit | On March 20, 2023 Agility Robotics revealed the fourth version of Digit. Adding a head, new manipulators, and perception systems.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Optimus | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2024 | Atlas, Electric | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
| Unitree G1 | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> The design is comparable to Boston Dynamic's upgraded Atlas. | ||
| HumanPlus | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| Digit | In June 2024, Agility Robotics announced that 5 of its Digit robots had begun handling tasks in the factory of its customer GXO Logistics.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | ||
| 2025 | EngineAI | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> |
In science fictionEdit
A common theme for the depiction of humanoid robots in science fiction pertains to how they can help humans in society or serve as threats to humanity.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> This theme essentially questions whether artificial intelligence is a force of good or bad for mankind.<ref name=":0" /> Humanoid robots that are depicted as good for society and benefit humans are Commander Data in Star Trek and C-3PO in Star Wars.<ref name=":0" /> Opposite portrayals where humanoid robots are shown as scary and threatening to humans are the T-800 in Terminator and Megatron in Transformers.<ref name=":0" /> An Indian Tamil-language film which showed the pros and cons of a humanoid robot Chitti.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Another prominent theme found in science fiction regarding humanoid robots focuses on personhood. Certain films, particularly Blade Runner and Blade Runner 2049, explore whether or not a constructed, synthetic being should be considered a person.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In the films, androids called "replicants" are created indistinguishably from human beings, yet they are shunned and do not possess the same rights as humans. This theme incites audience sympathy while also sparking unease at the idea of humanoid robots mimicking humans too closely.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
CriticismEdit
Humanoid robots, which are designed to resemble and mimic human form and behavior, have faced several criticisms:
- Uncanny Valley Effect: As robots become more human-like but not quite perfect, they can evoke feelings of unease or revulsion in humans.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Ethical Confusion: Humanoid robots can potentially lead to ethical dilemmas, creating confusion about their rights or treatment.
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
CitationsEdit
SourcesEdit
- Asada, H. and Slotine, J.-J. E. (1986). Robot Analysis and Control. Wiley. Template:ISBN.
- Arkin, Ronald C. (1998). Behavior-Based Robotics. MIT Press. Template:ISBN.
- Brady, M., Hollerbach, J.M., Johnson, T., Lozano-Perez, T. and Mason, M. (1982), Robot Motion: Planning and Control. MIT Press. Template:ISBN.
- Horn, Berthold, K. P. (1986). Robot Vision. MIT Press. Template:ISBN.
- Craig, J. J. (1986). Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control. Addison Wesley. Template:ISBN.
- Everett, H. R. (1995). Sensors for Mobile Robots: Theory and Application. AK Peters. Template:ISBN.
- Kortenkamp, D., Bonasso, R., Murphy, R. (1998). Artificial Intelligence and Mobile Robots. MIT Press. Template:ISBN.
- Poole, D., Mackworth, A. and Goebel, R. (1998), Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.
- Russell, R. A. (1990). Robot Tactile Sensing. Prentice Hall. Template:ISBN.
- Russell, S. J. & Norvig, P. (1995). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Prentice-Hall. Prentice Hall. Template:ISBN.
Further readingEdit
- Carpenter, J., Davis, J., Erwin‐Stewart, N., Lee. T., Bransford, J. & Vye, N. (2009). Gender representation in humanoid robots for domestic use. International Journal of Social Robotics (special issue). 1 (3), 261‐265. The Netherlands: Springer.
- Carpenter, J., Davis, J., Erwin‐Stewart, N., Lee. T., Bransford, J. & Vye, N. (2008). Invisible machinery in function, not form: User expectations of a domestic humanoid robot. Proceedings of 6th conference on Design and Emotion. Hong Kong, China.
- Williams, Karl P. (2004). Build Your Own Human Robots: 6 Amazing and Affordable Projects. McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics. Template:ISBN. Template:ISBN.
External linksEdit
Template:Humanoid robots Template:Androids Template:Mobile robots Template:Robotics