Dowsing

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A dowser, from an 18th-century French book about superstitions

Dowsing is a type of divination employed in attempts to locate ground water, buried metals or ores, gemstones, oil, claimed radiations (radiesthesia),<ref name="OhhXf">As translated from one preface of the Kassel experiments, "roughly 10,000 active dowsers in Germany alone can generate a conservatively-estimated annual revenue of more than 100 million DM (US$50 million)". GWUP-Psi-Tests 2004: Keine Million Dollar für PSI-Fähigkeiten Template:Webarchive (in German) and English version Template:Webarchive.</ref> gravesites,<ref name="Sxu9Y">Template:Cite news</ref> malign "earth vibrations"<ref name="rFVBG">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and many other objects and materials without the use of a scientific apparatus. It is also known as divining (especially in water divining),<ref name="inglis245"/> doodlebugging<ref name="JUTfP">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> (particularly in the United States, in searching for petroleum or treasure)<ref name="hGZYC">Template:Cite journal</ref> or water finding, or water witching (in the United States).

A Y-shaped twig or rod, or two L-shaped ones, called dowsing rods or divining rods are normally used, and the motion of these are said to reveal the location of the target material. The motion of such dowsing devices is generally attributed to random movement, or to the ideomotor phenomenon,<ref name="Zusne 1989">Zusne, Leonard; Jones, Warren H. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. pp. 105–110. Template:ISBN</ref><ref name="Novella 2002">Novella, Steve; Deangelis, Perry. (2002). Dowsing. In Michael Shermer. The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. ABC-CLIO. pp. 93–94. Template:ISBN "Despite widespread belief, careful investigation has demonstrated that the technique of dowsing simply does not work. No researcher has been able to prove under controlled conditions that dowsing has any genuine divining power... A more likely explanation for the movement of a dowser's focus is the ideomotor effect, which entails involuntary and unconscious motor behavior."</ref><ref name="a5FaR">Lawson, T. J; Crane, L. L. (2014). Dowsing Rods Designed to Sharpen Critical Thinking and Understanding of Ideomotor Action. Teaching of Psychology 41 (1): 52–56.</ref> a psychological response where a subject makes motions unconsciously.

The scientific evidence shows that dowsing is no more effective than random chance.<ref name="Vogt1979">Template:Cite book via Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="D55qx">Regal, Brian. (2009). Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia. Greenwood Press. pp. 55–57. Template:ISBN</ref> It is therefore regarded as a pseudoscience.

HistoryEdit

Early divination and religionEdit

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Dowsing for metal ore, from 1556 "De re metallica libri XII" book

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Use of a divining Rod observed in Great Britain in the late 18th century

File:Curious Myths p 81 rod.jpg

An illustration of a divining rod

Dowsing originated in ancient times, when it was treated as a form of divination. The Catholic Church, however, banned the practice completely.<ref name="inglis246">Inglis (1986) pp. 246–247.</ref>

Reformer Martin Luther perpetuated the Catholic ban, in 1518 listing divining for metals as an act that broke the first commandment (i.e., as occultism).<ref name="inglis246"/><ref name="ogD4W">Decem praecepta Wittenbergensi populo praedicta, Martin Luther</ref>

Old texts about searching for water do not mention using the divining twig, and the first account of this practice was in 1568.<ref name="spooky">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="15-credibility">Template:Cite podcast</ref> Sir William F. Barrett wrote in his 1911 book Psychical Research that:

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In 1662, divining with rods was declared to be "superstitious, or rather satanic" by a Jesuit, Gaspar Schott, though he later noted that he was not sure that the devil was always responsible for the movement of the rod.<ref name="IrMOB">Michel Eugène Chevreul, De La Baguette Divinatoire du pendule dit explorateur at des table tournants au point de vue de l'histoire, de la critique, and de la méthode expérimentale, Paris, 1854. "Le père Gaspard Schott (jés.) considère l'usage de la baguette comme superstitieux ou plutôt diabolique, mais des renseignements qui lui furent donnés plus tard par des hommes qu'il considérait comme religieux et probe, lui firent dire dans une notation à ce passage, qu'il ne voudrait pas assurer que le demon fait toujours tourner la baguette." (Physica Curiosa, 1662, lib. XII, cap. IV, pag. 1527). See facsimile Template:Webarchive on Google Books</ref> In southern France in the 17th century, it was used to track criminals and heretics. Its abuse led to a decree of the inquisition in 1701, forbidding its employment for purposes of justice.<ref name="EB1911">{{#if: |

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An epigram by Samuel Sheppard, from Epigrams theological, philosophical, and romantick (1651) runs thus:

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Modern dowsingEdit

Dowsing practices used in an attempt to locate metals are still performed much like they were during the 16th century.<ref name="jf6Of">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The 1550 edition of Sebastian Münster's Cosmographia contains a woodcut of a dowser with forked rod in hand walking over a cutaway image of a mining operation. The rod is labeled in Latin and German; "{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}" ('Rod Divine, Luck-Rod'), but there is no text accompanying the woodcut. By 1556, Georgius Agricola's treatment of mining and smelting of ore, De Re Metallica, included a detailed description of dowsing for metal ore.<ref name="QzIoT">William Barrett and Theodore Besterman. The Divining Rod: An Experimental and Psychological Investigation. (1926) Kessinger Publishing, 2004: p. 7</ref>

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In the 16th century, German deep mining technology was in enormous demand all over Europe. German miners were licensed to live and work in England;<ref name="qEKXa">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> particularly in the Stannaries (tin mines) of Devon and Cornwall and in Cumbria. In other parts of England, the technique was used in the royal mines for calamine. By 1638 German miners were recorded using the technique in silver mines in Wales.<ref name="JWG">Template:Cite book</ref>

The Middle Low German name for a forked stick (Y-rod) was {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name="oWZXw">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="cTZej">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> ('striking rod').<ref name="Barrett_Psychical Research_p170_2">Template:Cite book</ref> This was translated in the sixteenth century Cornish dialect to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name="4EoeB">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Clarify ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} according to William Barrett<ref name="Barrett_Psychical Research_p170_2" />) (Middle English, 'to strike, fall'<ref name="MyVtk">Template:Cite EB1911</ref>). By the seventeenth century the English term dowsing was coming into common use.<ref name="Inglis"/>

In the lead-mining area of the Mendip Hills in Somerset, England in the 17th century the natural philosopher Robert Boyle, inspired by the writings of Agricola, watched a practitioner try to find "latent veins of metals". Boyle saw the hazel divining rod ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) stoop in the hands of the diviner, who protested that he was not applying any force to the twig; Boyle accepted the man's genuine belief but himself remained unconvinced.<ref name="c2rlI">Template:Cite book</ref> Towards the end of the century, in 1691 the philosopher John Locke, who was born in the English West Country, used the term deusing-rod for the Old Latin name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name="eMgCy">Template:Cite book</ref> So, dowse is synonymous with strike, hence the phrases: to dowse/strike a light,<ref name="4nCYf">Template:Cite book</ref> to dowse/strike a sail.<ref name="Barrett_Psychical Research_p170_3">Template:Cite book</ref>

Dowsing was conducted in South Dakota in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to help homesteaders, farmers and ranchers locate water wells on their property.<ref name="vfJcb">Grace Fairchild and Walker D. Wyman, Frontier Woman: The Life of a Woman Homesteader on the Dakota Frontier (River Falls: University of Wisconsin-River Falls Press, 1972), 50; Robert Amerson, From the Hidewood: Memories of a Dakota Neighborhood (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1996), 290–298.</ref>

The military have occasionally resorted to dowsing techniques. In the First World War Gallipoli campaign, sapper Stephen Kelly, of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, Australian Expeditionary Force, became well known for finding water for the British troops.<ref>Inglis (1986), p.248</ref> In the late 1960s during the Vietnam War, some United States Marines used dowsing when locating weapons and tunnels.<ref name="washpost">FIX ME (could not access entire article) Template:Cite news</ref> As late as in 1986, when 31 soldiers were taken by an avalanche during an operation in the NATO drill Anchor Express in Vassdalen, Norway, the Norwegian army attempted to locate soldiers buried in the avalanche using dowsing as a search method.<ref name="IQrrg">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Dowsing is still used by some farmers and water engineers in Britain; however, many of the country's utilities have distanced themselves from the practice.<ref name="abcnews">California Farmers Hire Dowsers to Find Water Template:Webarchive, ABC news</ref><ref name="collectorsweekly">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="bbc2017">Scientist finds UK water companies use 'magic' to find leaks Template:Webarchive, BBC Oxford, 21 November 2017. (retrieved 21 November 2017)</ref><ref name="guardian2017">Matthew Weaver, UK water firms admit using divining rods to find leaks and pipes Template:Webarchive, The Guardian, 21 November 2017.</ref><ref name="DmOKI">Camila Domonoske, U.K. Water Companies Sometimes Use Dowsing Rods To Find Pipes Template:Webarchive, The Two-Way, NPR, 21 November 2017.</ref>

Postulated mechanismsEdit

Early attempts at an explanation of dowsing were based on the notion that the divining rod was physically affected by emanations from substances of interest. The following explanation is from William Pryce's 1778 Mineralogia Cornubiensis:

The corpuscles... that rise from the Minerals, entering the rod, determine it to bow down, in order to render it parallel to the vertical lines which the effluvia describe in their rise. In effect the Mineral particles seem to be emitted from the earth; now the Virgula [rod], being of a light porous wood, gives an easy passage to these particles, which are also very fine and subtle; the effluvia then driven forwards by those that follow them, and pressed at the same time by the atmosphere incumbent on them, are forced to enter the little interstices between the fibres of the wood, and by that effort they oblige it to incline, or dip down perpendicularly, to become parallel with the little columns which those vapours form in their rise.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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A study towards the end of the 19th century concluded that the phenomenon was attributed to cryptesthesia, where the practitioner makes unconscious observations of the terrain and involuntarily influences the movement of the rod.<ref name="ByO0k">Template:Cite journal</ref> Early investigations by members of the Society for Psychical Research endorsed this view.<ref name="inglis254">Inglis (1986), pp.254-5.</ref>

Committed parapsychologist G. N. M. Tyrrell also believed that the action of the rod was caused by involuntary muscular movements and debunked the theory of external influences.<ref>Tyrrell, G. N. M. (1938). Science and Psychical Phenomena, Methuen, London.</ref>

Dowsing over maps, prior to visiting the site, was also believed to work, hence some kind of clairvoyance was proposed. This was believed to act on the nervous system, rather than on the muscles directly. These various mechanisms remain in contention among dowsers.<ref name="inglis254"/>

Fraudulent security devicesEdit

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File:RandiNYC10.10.08ByLuigiNovi3.jpg

Skeptic James Randi at a lecture at Rockefeller University, on October 10, 2008, holding a US$800 device advertised as a dowsing instrument

In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries a number of dowsing-like devices were marketed for modern police and military use, primarily as explosive detectors, such as the ADE 651, Sniffex, and the GT200.<ref name="justnet.org">Double-Blind Field Evaluation of the MOLE Programmable Detection System, Sandia National Laboratories Template:Webarchive</ref><ref name="nytimes.com">Template:Cite news</ref> In consequence of these frauds, in 1999 the United States National Institute of Justice issued advice against buying equipment based on dowsing.<ref name="ncjrs.gov">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

EquipmentEdit

The device used by a dowser is typically referred to as a dowsing or divining rod, even though it may not be rod-shaped.<ref name="inglis245"/>

Dowsing twigEdit

File:Agriculture in Britain- Life on George Casely's Farm, Devon, England, 1942 D9817.jpg

George Casely uses a hazel twig to search for water on the land around his Devon farm, 1942.

Traditionally, the most common method used is the dowsing twig, a forked (Y-shaped) branch from a tree or bush. Some dowsers prefer branches from particular trees, and some prefer the branches to be freshly cut. Hazel twigs in Europe and witch-hazel in the United States are traditionally commonly chosen, as are branches from willow or peach trees. The two ends on the forked side are held one in each hand with the third (the stem of the Y) pointing straight ahead. The dowser then walks slowly over the places where the target (for example, minerals or water) may be, and the dowsing rod is expected to dip, incline or twitch when a discovery is made.<ref name="Inglis">Inglis (1986)</ref> This method is sometimes known as "willow witching." Some dowsers would hang a golden ring on the edge of the dowsing rod, or split the tip to slide in a silver coin.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Pair of rodsEdit

File:Allemanswiro.jpg

Two L-shaped metal wire rods

Many modern dowsers use a pair of L-shaped metal rods. One rod is held in each hand, with the short arm of the L held upright, and the long arm pointing forward. The upright arm is often free to rotate inside a tube. When something is "found," the rods move in synchrony. Depending on the dowser, they may cross over or swing apart.<ref name="inglis245"/> If the object is long and straight, such as a water pipe, the rods may point in opposite directions, showing its orientation. The rods may be fashioned from wire coat hangers or wire flags used for locating utilities. Glass or plastic rods have also been accepted. Straight rods are also sometimes used for the same purposes, and were common in early 19th century New England.

PendulumEdit

A pendulum weight on a short cord or thread is the tool of choice for many modern dowsers.<ref name="inglis245">Inglis (1986), pp. 245–246</ref>Template:Obsolete source The dowser holds the cord in one hand and allows the pendulum to swing freely. The dowser then observes how the pendulum is swinging and interprets the motion to offer insights.<ref>William Bown; "Science: The physics of a dowsing pendulum Template:Webarchive", New Scientist, 6 October 1990.</ref>

StudiesEdit

Dowsing studies from the early twentieth century were examined by geologist John Walter Gregory in a report for the Smithsonian Institution. Gregory concluded that the results were a matter of chance or explained by observations from ground surface clues.<ref name="K6Ds8">Gregory, J. W. (1928). Water Divining. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 325–348.</ref><ref name="skmP5">Mill, Hugh Robert. (1927) Belief and Evidence in Water Divining. Nature 120: 882–884.</ref>
Geologist W. A. MacFadyen tested three dowsers during 1943–1944 in Algeria. The results were entirely negative.<ref name="cMWQb">MacFadyen, W. A. (1946). Some Water Divining in Algeria. Nature 157: 304–305.</ref>
A 1948 study in New Zealand by P. A. Ongley tested 75 dowsers' ability to detect water. None of them was more reliable than chance. According to Ongley "not one showed the slightest accuracy."<ref name="yIPj4">Template:Cite journal via Template:Cite book</ref>
Archaeometrist Martin Aitken tested British dowser P. A. Raine in 1959. Raine failed to dowse the location of a buried kiln that had been identified by a magnetometer.<ref name="eTpbn">Aitken, M. J. (1959). Test for Correlation Between Dowsing Response and Magnetic Disturbance. Archaeometry 2: 58–59.</ref><ref name="Feder 2010">Feder, Kenneth L. (2010). Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis to Walam Olum. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 93. Template:ISBN</ref>
In 1971, dowsing experiments were organized by British engineer R. A. Foulkes on behalf of the Ministry of Defence. The results were "no more reliable than a series of guesses".<ref name="MhZYu">Foulkes, R. A. (1971). Dowsing Experiments. Nature 229: 163–168.</ref>
Physicists John Taylor and Eduardo Balanovski reported in 1978 a series of experiments they conducted that searched for unusual electromagnetic fields emitted by dowsing subjects; they did not detect any.<ref name="irk2l">Template:Cite journal</ref>
A 1979 review by Evon Z. Vogt and Ray Hyman examined many controlled studies of dowsing for water, and found that none of them showed better than chance results.<ref name="Vogt1979" />
British academics Richard N. Bailey, Eric Cambridge, and H. Denis Briggs, carried out dowsing experiments at the grounds of various churches. They reported successful results in their book Dowsing and Church Archaeology (1988).<ref name="Leusen 1998">Leusen, Martijn Van. (1998). Dowsing and Archaeology. Archaeological Prospection 5: 123–138.</ref> Their experiments were critically examined by archaeologist Martijn Van Leusen who suggested they were badly designed and the authors had redefined the test parameters on what was classified as a "hit" or "miss" to obtain positive results.<ref name="Leusen 1998" />
A 2006 study of grave dowsing in Iowa reviewed 14 published studies and determined that none of them correctly predicted the location of human burials, and simple scientific experiments demonstrated that the fundamental principles commonly used to explain grave dowsing were incorrect.<ref name="MQqlI">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

A randomized double-blind trial in 2012 was carried out to determine whether homeopaths were able to distinguish between Bryonia and placebo by use of a dowsing method. The results were negative.<ref name="fcmmp">McCarney R, Fisher P, Spink F, Flint G, van Haselen R. (2002). Can homeopaths detect homeopathic medicines by dowsing? A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial Template:Webarchive. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 95: 189–191.</ref>

Kassel 1991 studyEdit

A 1990 double-blind study<ref name="lezuY">GWUP-Psi-Tests 2004: Keine Million Dollar für PSI-Fähigkeiten Template:Webarchive (in German) and English version Template:Webarchive.</ref><ref name="rD0dh">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="0C3Uf">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> was undertaken in Kassel, Germany, under the direction of the Gesellschaft zur Wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung von Parawissenschaften (Society for the Scientific Investigation of the Parasciences). James Randi offered a US$10,000 prize to any successful dowser. The three-day test of some thirty dowsers involved plastic pipes through which water flow could be controlled and directed. The pipes were buried Template:Convert under a level field, the position of each marked on the surface with a colored strip. The dowsers had to tell whether water was running through each pipe. All the dowsers signed a statement agreeing this was a fair test of their abilities and that they expected a 100% success rate. However, the results were no better than chance, and no one was awarded the prize.

Betz 1990 studyEdit

In a 1987–88 study in Munich by Hans-Dieter Betz and other scientists, 500 dowsers were initially tested for their skill, and the experimenters selected the best 43 among them for further tests. Water was pumped through a pipe on the ground floor of a two-story barn. Before each test, the pipe was moved in a direction perpendicular to the water flow. On the upper floor, each dowser was asked to determine the position of the pipe. Over two years, the dowsers performed 843 such tests and, of the 43 pre-selected and extensively tested candidates, at least 37 showed no dowsing ability. The results from the remaining 6 were said to be better than chance, resulting in the experimenters' conclusion that some dowsers "in particular tasks, showed an extraordinarily high rate of success, which can scarcely if at all be explained as due to chance … a real core of dowser-phenomena can be regarded as empirically proven."<ref name="munich_study_quote">Wagner, H., H.-D. Betz, and H. L. König, 1990. Schlußbericht 01 KB8602, Bundesministerium für Forschung und Technologie. As quoted by Jim T. Enright Template:Webarchive in the Skeptical Inquirer.</ref>

Five years after the Munich study was published, Jim T. Enright, a professor of physiology who emphasized correct data analysis procedure, contended that the study's results are merely consistent with statistical fluctuations and not significant. He believed the experiments provided "the most convincing disproof imaginable that dowsers can do what they claim",<ref name="enright">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> stating that the data analysis was "special, unconventional and customized". Replacing it with "more ordinary analyses",<ref name="enright1995">Template:Cite journal</ref> he noted that the best dowser was on average Template:Convert out of Template:Convert closer to a mid-line guess, an advantage of 0.04%, and that the five other "good" dowsers were on average farther than a mid-line guess. Enright emphasized that the experimenters should have decided beforehand how to statistically analyze the results; if they only afterward chose the statistical analysis that showed the greatest success, then their conclusions would not be valid until replicated by another test analyzed by the same method. He further pointed out that the six "good" dowsers did not perform any better than chance in separate tests.<ref name="enright1996">Template:Cite journal</ref> Another study published in Pathophysiology hypothesized that such experiments as this one that were carried out in the twentieth century could have been interfered with by man-made radio frequency radiation, as test subjects' bodies absorbed the radio waves and unconscious hand movement reactions took place following the standing waves or intensity variations.<ref name="O54Fh">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Scientific receptionEdit

Ideomotor phenomenonEdit

Science writers such as William Benjamin Carpenter (1877), Millais Culpin (1920), and Martin Gardner (1957) accept the view of some dowsers<ref name="ZrZdV">Template:Cite book</ref> that the movement of dowsing rods is the result of unconscious muscular action.<ref name="7j4uc">Carpenter, William Benjamin. (1877). Mesmerism, Spiritualism, &c. Historically & Scientifically Considered. New York: D. Appleton and Company. pp. 47–53</ref><ref name="7p2Ph">Culpin, Millais. (1920). Spiritualism and the New Psychology: An Explanation of Spiritualist Phenomena and Beliefs in Terms of Modern Knowledge. London: Edward Arnold. pp. 34–43</ref><ref name="4urba">Gardner, Martin. (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover Publications. pp. 101–115. Template:ISBN</ref> This view is widely accepted amongst the scientific community.<ref name="Zusne 1989" /><ref name="Novella 2002" /><ref name="qYM2T">Hyman, Ray. (2003). "How People Are Fooled by Ideomotor Action" Template:Webarchive. Quackwatch.</ref><ref name="French 2013">French, Chris. (2013). "The unseen force that drives Ouija Boards and fake bomb detectors" Template:Webarchive. The Guardian.</ref> The dowsing apparatus is known to amplify slight movements of the hands caused by a phenomenon known as the ideomotor response: people's subconscious minds may influence their bodies without consciously deciding to take action. This would make the dowsing rod susceptible to the dowsers' subconscious knowledge or perception; and also to confirmation bias.<ref name="Zusne 1989" /><ref name="ULncz">Hyman, R; Vogt, E. Z. (1968). Psychologists examine the secrets of water witching. Science Digest 63 (1): 39–45.</ref><ref name="d5dci">Hines, Terence. (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. pp. 418–421. Template:ISBN</ref><ref name="A7Gqj">Hyman, Ray. (2007). Ouija, Dowsing, and Other Selections of Ideomotor Action. In. S. Della Sala. Tall Tales About the Mind & Brain: Separating Fact From Fiction. Oxford University Press. pp. 411–424</ref><ref name="ajLAI">"Dowsing (a.k.a. water witching)" Template:Webarchive. The Skeptic's Dictionary.</ref>

PseudoscienceEdit

Dowsing is in all other respects considered to be a pseudoscience.<ref name="IHcaP">Regal, Brian. (2009). Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia. Greenwood. pp. 56–57. Template:ISBN</ref><ref name="2TJeM">Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. University Of Chicago Press p. 38. Template:ISBN</ref><ref name="nqeNG">Radford, Benjamin. (2013). "Dowsing: The Pseudoscience of Water Witching". Live Science.</ref>

Psychologist David Marks in a 1986 article in Nature included dowsing in a list of "effects which until recently were claimed to be paranormal but which can now be explained from within orthodox science."<ref name="marks1986">Template:Cite journal</ref> Specifically, dowsing could be explained in terms of sensory cues, expectancy effects, and probability.<ref name="marks1986" />

Science writer Peter Daempfle has noted that when dowsing is subjected to scientific testing, it fails. Daempfle has written that although some dowsers claim success, this can be attributed to the underground water table being distributed relatively uniformly in certain areas.<ref name="XGif0">Daempfle, Peter. (2013). Good Science, Bad Science, Pseudoscience, and Just Plain Bunk: How to Tell the Difference. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 115. Template:ISBN</ref>

According to archaeologist Kenneth Feder, "the vast majority of archaeologists don't use dowsing, because they don't believe it works."<ref name="Feder 2010" />

Psychologist Chris French has noted that "dowsing does not work when it is tested under properly controlled conditions that rule out the use of other cues to indicate target location."<ref name="French 2013" />

Water dowsers often achieve good results because random chance has a high probability of finding water in favorable terrain.<ref name="M6d9g">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>