Duḥkha

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Duḥkha (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx, Template:Langx) "suffering", "pain", "unease", or "unsatisfactoriness", is an important concept in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Its meaning depends on the context, and may refer more specifically to the "unsatisfactoriness" or "unease" of craving for and grasping after transient 'things' (sense objects, including thoughts), expecting pleasure from them while ignorant of this transientness.Template:Sfnp Template:Sfnp Template:Sfnp Template:Sfnp Template:Refn In Buddhism, dukkha is part of the first of the Four Noble Truths and one of the three marks of existence. The term also appears in scriptures of Hinduism, such as the Upanishads, in discussions of moksha (spiritual liberation).<ref name="olivellebu44142" /><ref name="Deussen1980p497"/>

While the term dukkha has often been derived from the prefix du- ("bad" or "difficult") and the root kha ("empty," "hole"), meaning a badly fitting axle-hole of a cart or chariot giving "a very bumpy ride,"Template:Sfn Template:Sfn it may actually be derived from duḥ-stha, a "dis-/ bad- + stand-", that is, "standing badly, unsteady," "unstable."Template:Sfn Template:Sfnp Template:Sfnp Template:Sfnp

Etymology and meaningEdit

Duḥkha (Sanskrit: दुःख; Pali: dukkha) is a term found in the Upanishads and Buddhist texts, meaning anything that is "uneasy, uncomfortable, unpleasant, difficult, causing pain or sadness".Template:Sfn Template:Sfnp It is also a concept in Indian religions about the nature of transient phenomena which are innately "unpleasant", "suffering", "pain", "sorrow", "distress", "grief" or "misery".Template:Sfn Template:Sfnp The term duḥkha does not have a one-word English translation, and embodies diverse aspects of unpleasant human experiences.Template:Sfnp Template:Sfnp It is often understood as the opposite of sukha, meaning lasting "happiness," "comfort" or "ease".Template:Sfn

EtymologyEdit

Axle holeEdit

The word has been explained in recent times as a derivation from Aryan terminology for an axle hole, referring to an axle hole which is not in the center and leads to a bumpy, uncomfortable ride. According to Winthrop Sargeant,

The ancient Aryans who brought the Sanskrit language to India were a nomadic, horse- and cattle-breeding people who travelled in horse- or ox-drawn vehicles. Su- and dus- are prefixes indicating good or bad. The word kha, in later Sanskrit meaning "sky," "ether," or "space," was originally the word for "hole," particularly an axle hole of one of the Aryan's vehicles. Thus sukha ... meant, originally, "having a good axle hole," while duḥkha meant "having a poor axle hole," leading to discomfort.Template:Sfn{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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Joseph Goldstein, American vipassana teacher and writer, explains the etymology as follows:

The word dukkha is made up of the prefix du- and the root kha. Du- means "bad" or "difficult". Kha means "empty". "Empty", here, refers to several things—some specific, others more general. One of the specific meanings refers to the empty axle hole of a wheel. If the axle fits badly into the center hole, we get a very bumpy ride. This is a good analogy for our ride through saṃsāra.Template:Sfn{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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'Standing unstable'Edit

However, according to Monier Monier-Williams, the actual roots of the Pali term dukkha appear to be Sanskrit दुस्- (dus-, "bad") + स्था (sthā, "to stand").Template:Sfn Template:Refn Regular phonological changes in the development of Sanskrit into the various Prakrits led to a shift from dus-sthā to duḥkha to dukkha.

Analayo concurs, stating that dukkha as derived from duḥ-sthā, "standing badly," "conveys nuances of "uneasiness" or of being "uncomfortable."Template:Sfnp Silk Road philologist Christopher I. Beckwith elaborates on this derivation.Template:Sfnp According to Beckwith: Template:Quote

TranslationEdit

The literal meaning of duḥkha, as used in a general sense is "suffering" or "painful."Template:Refn Its exact translation depends on the context.Template:Refn Contemporary translators of Buddhist texts use a variety of English words to convey the aspects of dukh. Early Western translators of Buddhist texts (before the 1970s) typically translated the Pali term dukkha as "suffering." Later translators have emphasized that "suffering" is a too limited translation for the term duḥkha, and have preferred to either leave the term untranslated,Template:Sfn or to clarify that translation with terms such as anxiety, distress, frustration, unease, unsatisfactoriness, not having what one wants, having what one doesn't want, etc.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn In the sequence "birth is painful," dukhka may be translated as "painful."Template:Sfnp When related to vedana, "feeling," dukkha ("unpleasant," "painful") is the opposite of sukkha ("pleasure," "pleasant"), yet all feelings are dukkha in that they are impermanent, conditioned phenomena, which are unsatisfactory, incapable of providing lasting satisfaction.Template:CN The term "unsatisfactoriness" then is often used to emphasize the unsatisfactoriness of "life under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma."Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Refn

BuddhismEdit

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Early BuddhismEdit

Duḥkha is one of the three marks of existence, namely anitya ("impermanent"), duḥkha ("unsatisfactory"), anatman (without a lasting essence).Template:Refn

Various sutras sum up how cognitive processes result in an aversion to unpleasant things and experiences (duḥkha), forming a corrupted process together with the complementary process of clinging to and craving for pleasure (suhkha). This is expressed as saṃsāra, an ongoing process of death and rebirth,Template:Refn but also more pointly and non-metaphysically in the process-formula of the five skandhas:

Birth is duḥkha, maturation is duḥkha, aging is duḥkha, illness is duḥkha, death is duḥkha;
Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are duḥkha;
Association with the unbeloved is duḥkha; separation from the loved is duḥkha;
Not getting what is wanted is duḥkha.
In conclusion, the five clinging-aggregates (skandhas) are duḥkha.

Early emphasis is on the importance of developing insight into the nature of duḥkha, the corrupted process of clinging and craving which starts with sense-contact, as described in the skandhas, and how this corruption can be overcome, namely by training the mind culminating in the process of the dhyanas. This is summarized in the teachings on the Four Noble Truths and other formulaic expressions of the Buddhist way to awakening.

Within the Buddhist sutras, duḥkha has a broad meaning, and has also been specified in three categories:<ref>"What Are the Three Kinds of Suffering?"https://www.lionsroar.com/buddhism-by-the-numbers-the-three-kinds-of-suffering/</ref>

Dukkha-dukkha, aversion to physical sufferingTemplate:Snd this includes the physical and mental sufferings of birth, aging, illness, dying; distress due to what is not desirable.
Viparinama-dukkha, the frustration of disappearing happinessTemplate:Snd this is the duḥkha of pleasant or happy experiences changing to unpleasant when the causes and conditions that produced the pleasant experiences cease.
Sankhara-dukkha, the unsatisfactoriness of changing and impermanent "things"Template:Snd the incapability of conditioned things to give us lasting happiness. This includes "a basic unsatisfactoriness pervading all existence, all forms of life, because all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance."<ref>Bikkhu Bodhi, dead link</ref> On this level, the term indicates a lack of lasting satisfaction, or a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.

Chinese BuddhismEdit

Chinese Buddhist tradition has been influenced by Taoism and Confucian theory that advocates that duhkha (古:十Ten directions, 口 hole or opening) is associated to the theory of seven emotions of endogenous disease through the formation of the spirit of the po a term that relates to the Western psychological notion of ego or the theological reference to the human soul. This theory is expounded in the application of traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment and prevention of pain and suffering from illness, disease and ignorance.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Literal suffering and awakeningEdit

Awakening, that is, awakening to one's true mind of emptiness and compassion, does not necessarily end physical suffering. In the Buddhist tradition, suffering after awakening is often explained as the working-out or untangling of karma of one's previous present life.

HinduismEdit

In Hinduism, duḥkha encompasses many meanings such as the phenomenological senses of pain and grief, a deep-seated dissatisfaction with the limitations of worldly existence, and the devastation of impermanence.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In Hindu scriptures, the earliest [[Upanishads|UpaniTemplate:IASTads]] — the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Template:IAST]] and the [[Chandogya Upanishad|Template:IAST]] — in all likelihood predate the advent of Buddhism.Template:Refn In these scriptures of Hinduism, the Sanskrit word duTemplate:IASTkha (दुःख) appears in the sense of "suffering, sorrow, distress", and in the context of a spiritual pursuit and liberation through the knowledge of Atman ('essence').<ref name="olivellebu44142" /><ref name="Deussen1980p497">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 261-262</ref>

The concept of sorrow and suffering, and self-knowledge as a means to overcome it, appears extensively with other terms in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The term Duhkha also appears in many other middle and later post-Buddhist Upanishads such as the verse 6.20 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> as well as in the Bhagavad Gita, all in the contexts of moksha and bhakti.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Refn

The term also appears in the foundational Sutras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, such as the opening lines of Samkhya karika of the Samkhya school.<ref>Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;
Second Translation (Verse 1): Ferenc Ruzsa (1997), The triple suffering - A note on the Samkhya karika, Xth World Sanskrit Conference: Bangalore, University of Hungary, Budapest;
Third Translation (all Verses): Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna John Davis (Translator), Trubner, London, University of Toronto Archives</ref><ref name="colebrookesktrans">Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press</ref> The Samkhya school identifies three types of suffering.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali state that "for one who has discrimination, everything is suffering" (duḥkham eva sarvaṁ vivekinaḥ).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Some of the Hindu scripture verses referring to duhkha are:


Hindu Scripture	Sanskrit	English
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (Verse 4.4.14)	Template:IAST<ref>Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Retrieved 16 May 2016 from "SanskritDocuments.Org" at Brihadaranyaka IV.iv.14, Original: इहैव सन्तोऽथ विद्मस्तद्वयं विद्मस् तद् वयम्न चेदवेदिर्महती विनष्टिः । ये तद्विदुरमृतास्ते भवन्त्य् अथेतरे दुःखमेवापियन्ति ॥ १४ ॥</ref>	While we are still here, we have come to know it [[[Ātman (Hinduism)\|Template:IASTtman]]]. If you've not known it, great is your destruction. Those who have known it – they become immortal. As for the rest – only suffering awaits them.<ref name="olivellebu44142">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4 April 2014, trans. Patrick Olivelle (1996), p. 66.</ref>
Chāndogya Upaniṣad (Verse 7.26.2)	Template:IAST<ref>Chandogya Upanishad 7,26.2. Retrieved 16 May 2016 from Wikisource छान्दोग्योपनिषद् ४ ॥ षड्विंशः खण्डः ॥, Quote: तदेष श्लोको न पश्यो मृत्युं पश्यति न रोगं नोत दुःखताँ सर्वँ ह पश्यः पश्यति सर्वमाप्नोति सर्वश इति ।</ref>	When a man rightly sees, he sees no death, no sickness or distress.Template:Refn When a man rightly sees, he sees all, he wins all, completely.<ref>Chandogya Upanishad 7.26.2, trans. Patrick Olivelle (1996), p. 166.</ref>Template:Refn
Bhagavad Gita (Verse 2.56)	duḥkheṣhv-anudvigna-manāḥ sukheṣhu vigata-spṛihaḥ vīta-rāga-bhaya-krodhaḥ sthita-dhīr munir uchyate	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Bhagavad Gita (Verse 8.15)	mām upetya punar janma duḥkhālayam aśāśvatam nāpnuvanti mahātmānaḥ saṁsiddhiṁ paramāṁ gatāḥ	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>

JainismEdit

Duḥkha is explained in the Tattvartha Sutra, an authoritative Jain scripture from the 2nd century.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Template:Verse translation