Irish initial mutations

File:Castle Street signs, Strabane, January 2010.JPG

lang}} "castle" with a mutated Template:Vr.

Irish, like all modern Celtic languages, is characterised by its initial consonant mutations.<ref name=conroy-thesis>Template:Cite thesis</ref> These mutations affect the initial consonant of a word under specific morphological and syntactic conditions. The mutations are an important tool in understanding the relationship between two words and can differentiate various meanings.

Irish, like Scottish Gaelic and Manx, features two initial consonant mutations: lenition (Template:Langx {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) and eclipsis ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) (the alternative names, aspiration for lenition and nasalisation for eclipsis, are also used, but those terms are misleading).

Originally these mutations were phonologically governed external sandhi effects: lenition was caused by a consonant being between two vowels, and eclipsis when a nasal preceded an obstruent, including at the beginning of a word.

Irish also features t-prothesis and h-prothesis, related phenomena which affect vowel-initial words.

See Irish phonology for a discussion of the symbols used on this page. Template:TOC limit

Historical development

Lenition

Lenition as an initial mutation originally stems from the historical allophonic lenition of an intervocalic consonant, both word internally and across word boundaries, i.e if a word ended in a vowel and the next word began with a consonant + a vowel, the consonant lenited.

Today, these former final vowels are usually elided, but the lenition of following consonants remains and has been grammaticised. For example, Proto-Celtic *esyo "his" caused the lenition of a following consonant due to its final vowel and its modern form {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} now causes lenition, keeping it distinct from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "her" and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "their", which cause h-prothesis and eclipsis respectively.

Lenition caused stops and *m to become fricatives, *s to debuccalise to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, *f to elide, and the liquids *l, *n, *r to split into fortis and lenis variants. Though by the end of the Middle Irish period lenited *m largely lost its nasal quality, lenited *t debuccalised to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and lenited *d lost its coronal articulation.

Lenition did not only occur word initially, though non-initial lenition was never grammaticised. For example Proto-Celtic *knāmis → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "bone", and *abalnā → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "apple tree".

Prothetic Template:Vr- and Template:Vr-

While it is not initially apparent, the prothesis of Template:Vr and Template:Vr stems from historical lenition combined with vowel reduction.

The prosthetic Template:Vr- of vowel initial words is a fossilised fragment of the Proto-Celtic masculine definite article *sindos. Before vowels, the *s of the ending *-os was lenited to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, which (combined with the loss of the *-o-) devoiced the preceding *-d- to *-t.

• i.e. *sindos {{#invoke:IPA|main}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).

The prosthetic Template:Vr of Template:Vr initial words is a fossilised fragment of the d of Proto-Celtic nominative feminine definite article *sindā and masculine genitive definite article *sindī. Since they ended in vowels, a following word initial *s was lenited to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} which (combined with the loss of the *-ā, *-ī) devoiced the preceding *-d to *-t.

• i.e. *sindā sūli [sindaː huːli] → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})

The prothetic Template:Vr of vowel initial words has two origins, the first being epenthetic to avoid vowel hiatus, and the second being the fossilised remnant of a historic consonant. For example, the *s of Proto-Celtic *esyās "her" was lenited between vowels to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Overtime *esyās was reduced to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} but the {{#invoke:IPA|main}} remains when it is followed by a vowel initial word but is now written as part of the following word.

Eclipsis

Eclipsis originally stems from the historical coalescence of consonant clusters beginning with a nasal, both word internally and across word boundaries, i.e if a word ended in a nasal and the next word began with a stop or labial fricative, they would coalesce.

Today, many of the former final nasals have been elided, but still have an effect on the pronunciation of a following consonant, which has been grammaticised. For example, the Proto-Celtic genitive plural of the definite article *sindoisom has lost its final nasal and been reduced to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} but it now causes the eclipsis of a following consonant or the prothesis of Template:Vr to a vowel.

The cluster reductions involved in eclipsis turned nasal stops followed by a voiced stop into nasal stops, nasal stops followed by a voiceless stop into voiced plosives, nasal stops followed by a voiceless labial fricative into a voiced fricative, and words which have lost their final nasal add an Template:Vr to vowel initial words.

These cluster reductions did not only occur word initially, though non-initial coalescence was never grammaticised. For example, Proto-Celtic *lindos → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "pool", and *kʷenkʷe → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "five".

Summary table

This table shows the orthographical and phonological effects of lenition, eclipsis, h-prothesis, and t-prothesis. Vowels are represented by Template:Vr and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Consonants are broad before Template:Vr and slender before Template:Vr. See also Irish orthography which has a table showing non-initial lenited consonants which elided or vocalised to form diphthongs or long vowels.

Unmutated			Lenition			Eclipsis			T-Prothesis			H-Prothesis			Meaning
Spell.	IPA	E.G.	Spell.	IPA	E.G.	Spell.	IPA	E.G.	Spell.	IPA	E.G.	Spell.	IPA	E.G.
V v	main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	colspan="3" Template:N/a	nV n-v	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	tV t-v	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	hV hv	main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	bird
B b	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Bh bh	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	mB mb	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	colspan="3" rowspan="9" Template:N/a	colspan="3" rowspan="11" Template:N/a	woman
C c	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Ch ch	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	gC gc	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	head
D d	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Dh dh	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	nD nd	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	back
F f	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Fh fh	∅	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	bhF bhf	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	answer
G g	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Gh gh	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	nG ng	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	knee
L l	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	L l	main}} *{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	colspan="3" rowspan="3" Template:N/a	baby
M m	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Mh mh	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	mother
N n	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	N n	main}} *{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	saint
P p	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Ph ph	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	bP bp	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	pen
S s	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Sh sh	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	colspan="3" Template:N/a	tS ts	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	eye
T t	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Th th		lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	dT dt	main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	colspan="3" Template:N/a	house

* Not all dialects contrast lenited Template:Vr and Template:Vr from their unlenited forms. See Irish Phonology#Fortis and lenis sonorants.

Environments of Lenition

After proclitics

After the definite article

The definite article triggers the lenition of:

1. a feminine noun in the nominative singular

   {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the woman"

2. a masculine noun in the genitive singular

   {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "of the man" e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, the man's car (car of the man)

3. a noun in the dative singular, when the article follows one of the prepositions {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "from", {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "to" or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "in"

   {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "to the man"

   {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "from the woman"

   {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "in the tree"; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "in the autumn"

Lenition is blocked when a coronal consonant is preceded by {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the drink", although {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is feminine nominative singular

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "of the house", although {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is masculine genitive singular

Instead of leniting to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, after the definite article, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} become {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (written Template:Vr):

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} "the eye" (fem. nom. sg.)

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} "of the world" (masc. gen. sg.)

After the vocative particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Bríd!"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Seán!"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "my friends!"

After possessive pronouns

The possessive pronouns that trigger lenition are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "my", {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "your (sg.)", {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "his"

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "my son"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "your house"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "his pen"

After certain prepositions

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "out of a tree"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "under a tree"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "as a person"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "from Cork"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "before morning"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "through frost and snow"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "at Easter"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "both men and women"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "on a table"

After the preterite/conditional of the copula

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "He was a big person."
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "That was nice of you."

After the preterite preverbal particles

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "He was not a teacher."
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "I didn't give"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Was he a priest?"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Did he come?"

After certain preverbal particles

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "I don't understand"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "if he comes"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the man who will give it to me"

A verb in the preterite, imperfect or conditional

These were originally preceded by the particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and often still are in Munster.

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "I broke"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "I used to break"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "I would break"

In modifier + head constructions

Lenition is blocked in these constructions if two coronals are adjacent.

After certain numbers

The singular form is used after numbers and is lenited in the following cases:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "one cow"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the first year"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "two houses"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "two men"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "three boats"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "four cows"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "five pounds"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "six months"

After preposed adjectives

Constructions of adjective + noun are written as compounds.

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "old woman"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "bad person"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "good deed"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "modern language"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "stormy sea"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "true skin"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "high pressure"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "young man"

After most prefixes

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "very small"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "too small"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "retake"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "new year"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "undeniable"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "saucer"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "overalls"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "interconfessional"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "polygamy"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "stepmother"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "unhappy"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "insomnia"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "capital city"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "fragile"

The second part of a compound

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "noun" (lit. "name word")
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "dark blue"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "national debt"

In head + modifier constructions

In these constructions coronals are lenited even following other

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "rainy weather" (lenition after a feminine singular noun)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "bottles of juice" (lenition after a plural ending in a slender consonant)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Seán's house" (lenition of a definite noun in the genitive)

Postposed adjectives in certain circumstances

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "a pretty woman" (lenition after a feminine singular noun)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the big men" (lenition after a plural noun ending in a slender consonant)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the name of the small man" (lenition after a masculine singular noun in the genitive)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "in the big tree" (lenition after a noun lenited by virtue of being in the dative after {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})

Environments of Eclipsis Template:Anchor

File:Boat Slip sign.jpg

lang}} "slip of the boats". Even in an all-caps, the eclipsed letter is not capitalised.

File:Street sign Irish Row, Raphoe - geograph.org.uk - 4086612.jpg

lang}} "Row of the Gaels".

After plural possessive pronouns

The possessive pronouns that trigger eclipsis are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "our", {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "your (pl.)", {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "their"

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "our friends"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "your (pl.) children"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "their boat",

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} can mean "his", "her" or "their", but these different uses can still be distinguished, since {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} causes lenition when used as "his" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), causes eclipsis when used as "their" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), and neither when used as "her" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).

After certain numbers

The numbers that trigger eclipsis (the noun being in the singular) are:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "seven horses"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "eight donkeys"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "nine cats"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "ten pens"

After the preposition {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "in"

Before a vowel {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is written instead of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "in a house"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "in Ireland"

Genitive plural nouns after the definite article

The genitive plural article {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} eclipses a following noun:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "of the donkeys"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "of the words"

Dative singular nouns after the definite article

In western and southern dialects, nouns beginning with a noncoronal consonant are eclipsed after combinations of preposition + article in the singular (except {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which trigger lenition)

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "by the man"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "on the tree"

After certain preverbal particles

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the hole that the rabbits come out of"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Does he come every day?"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Where are my glasses?"
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "He said that he would come."
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "if I had known that"

Changes to vowel-initial words

In environments where lenition occurs a vowel initial word remains unchanged:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the night" (feminine singular nominative noun after definite article)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "of the water" (masculine singular genitive noun after definite article)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "from Scotland" (noun after leniting preposition)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "grandfather" (noun after preposed adjective: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "old" + {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "father")

Template:AnchorHowever, In environments where neither eclipsis nor lenition is expected, an initial vowel may acquire a prothetic consonant. For example, a vowel-initial masculine singular nominative noun requires a Template:Vr (a voiceless coronal plosive) after the definite article:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the water" (masculine singular nominative)

Template:AnchorAdditionally, there is the prothetic Template:Vr (a voiceless glottal fricative), which occurs when both the following conditions are met:

1. a proclitic causes neither lenition nor eclipsis of consonants.
2. a proclitic itself ends in a vowel.

Examples of h-prothesis:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "her age" (after possessive pronoun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "her"; compare with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "his age" and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "their age" with regular urú)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "to Ireland" (after preposition {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "to, towards")
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "with Antaine" (after preposition {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "with")
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "of the night" (on feminine singular genitive noun after definite article)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the birds" (on plural nominative/dative noun after definite article)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "as high as a castle" (after chomh {{#invoke:IPA|main}} "as")
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "beautifully" (after adverb-forming particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "Don't leave me!" (after negative imperative particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "don't")
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "the second place" (after an ordinal numeral)