Cree language

Template:Short description Template:Distinguish {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other Template:Contains special characters

Cree (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respelling;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> also known as Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi) is a dialect continuum of Algonquian languages spoken by approximately 86,475 people across Canada in 2021,<ref name=":5">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> from the Northwest Territories to Alberta to Labrador.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> If considered one language, it is the aboriginal language with the highest number of speakers in Canada.<ref name=":5" /> The only region where Cree has any official status is in the Northwest Territories, alongside eight other aboriginal languages.<ref name="lang"/> There, Cree is spoken mainly in Fort Smith and Hay River.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Names

Endonyms are:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Plains Cree)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Woods Cree)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Western Swampy Cree)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Eastern Swampy Cree)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Moose Cree)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Southern East Cree)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Northern East Cree)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Atikamekw)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Western Montagnais, Piyekwâkamî dialect)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Western Montagnais, Betsiamites dialect)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Eastern Montagnais)

Origin and diffusion

Cree is believed to have begun as a dialect of the Proto-Algonquian language spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in the original Algonquian homeland, an undetermined area thought to be near the Great Lakes. The speakers of the proto-Cree language are thought to have moved north, and diverged rather quickly into two different groups on each side of James Bay. The eastern group then began to diverge into separate dialects, whereas the western grouping probably broke into distinct dialects much later.<ref>Rhodes and Todd, "Subarctic Algonquian Languages" in Handbook of North American Indians: Subarctic, p. 60</ref> After this point it is very difficult to make definite statements about how different groups emerged and moved around, because there are no written works in the languages to compare, and descriptions by Europeans are not systematic; as well, Algonquian people have a tradition of bilingualism and even of outright adopting a new language from neighbours.<ref>Rhodes and Todd, 60–61</ref>

A traditional view among 20th-century anthropologists and historians of the fur trade posits that the Western Woods Cree and the Plains Cree (and therefore their dialects) did not diverge from other Cree peoples before 1670, when the Cree expanded out of their homeland near James Bay because of access to European firearms. By contrast, James Smith of the Museum of the American Indian stated, in 1987, that the weight of archeological and linguistic evidence puts the Cree as far west as the Peace River Region of Alberta before European contact.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Dialect criteria

The Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern Ontario and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, and Mauricie regions of Quebec differentiate {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (sh as in she) and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, while those to the west have merged the two phonemes as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and in the east the phonemes are merged as either {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. In several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, the long vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} have merged into a single vowel, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. In the Quebec communities of Chisasibi, Whapmagoostui, and Kawawachikamach, the long vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has merged with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *l in the modern dialects, as shown below:

Dialect	Location	Reflex of *l	Word for 'native person' ← *Template:Transliteration	Word for 'you' ← *Template:Transliteration
Plains Cree	SK, AB, BC, NT	y	lang}}	lang}}
Woods Cree	MB, SK	ð/th	lang}}	lang}}
Swampy Cree	ON, MB, SK	n	lang}}	lang}}
Moose Cree	ON	l	lang}}	lang}}
Atikamekw	QC	r	lang}}	lang}}
Northern East Cree	QC	y	lang}}	lang}}
Southern East Cree	QC	y	lang}}	lang}}
Kawawachikamach Naskapi	QC	y	lang}}	lang}}
Western Innu	QC	l	lang}}	lang}}
Eastern Innu	QC, NL	n	lang}}	lang}}

The Plains Cree, speakers of the y dialect, refer to their language as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, whereas Woods Cree speakers say {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and Swampy Cree speakers say {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.

Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the palatalisation of Proto-Algonquian *k: East of the Ontario–Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before front vowels. See the table above for examples in the *Template:Transliteration column.

Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} sound change (BC–QC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QC–NL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as East Cree then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagnais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach (y-dialect) and Natuashish (n-dialect).

Dialect groups

The Cree dialects can be broadly classified into nine groups. Roughly from west to east:

Template:Nowrap

ISO-639-3 code and name		ISO-639-6 code and name		Linguasphere code and name<ref>Linguasphere code 62-ADA is called "Cree+Ojibwa net", listing four divisions of which three are shown here—the fourth division 62-ADA-d representing the Ojibwe dialects, listed as "Ojibwa+ Anissinapek".</ref> || rowspan=2 colspan=3|Moseley<ref>Moseley, Christopher. 2007. Encyclopedia of World's Endangered Languages. Template:ISBN</ref> || rowspan=2 colspan=3| Glottolog name (and code)<ref>Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.</ref> || colspan=4|  dialect type   || colspan=2 rowspan=2|additional comments
							*l	*k(i)	*š	*ē
cre Cree (generic)	cwd Woods Cree ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})	cwd Woods Cree		62-ADA-a Cree	62-ADA-ab Woods Cree		Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi	Western Cree	Wood Cree	Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi cree1271	Woods Cree wood1236		ð	k	s	ī		In this dialect ē has merged into ī.
											Plains Cree plai1258	Western York Cree	r → ð	k	s	ī		lang}}). Also known as "Rocky Cree". Historical r have transitioned to ð and have merged into Woods Cree. While Woods Cree proper have hk, Missinipi Cree have sk, e.g., Woods Cree {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} v. Missinipi Cree Template:Transliteration: 'he/she is red'.
	crk Plains Cree	crk Plains Cree			62-ADA-aa Plains Cree				Plains Cree			Northern Alberta Cree	y	k	s	ī	(northern)	Divided to Southern Plains Cree ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and Northern Plains Cree ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). In the Northern dialect, ē has merged into ī.
												Nuclear Plains Cree	y	k	s	ē	(southern)
	csw Swampy Cree ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})	csw Swampy Cree			62-ADA-ac Swampy Cree, West (Ininīmowin)				Swampy Cree		Swampy Cree swam1239	Western Swampy Cree	n	k	s	ē		Eastern Swampy Cree, together with Moose Cree, also known as "West Main Cree," "Central Cree," or "West Shore Cree." In the western dialect, š has merged with s. Western Swampy Cree also known as "York Cree;" together with Northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, also known as "Western Woodland Cree."
					62-ADA-ad Swampy Cree, East ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})							Eastern Swampy Cree	n	k	š	ē
	crm Moose Cree ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})	crm Moose Cree			62-ADA-ae Moose Cree				Moose Cree		Moose Cree moos1236		n\l	k	š	ē	(lowland)	Together with the Eastern Swampy Cree, also known as "West Main Cree," "Central Cree," or "West Shore Cree." In Swampy Cree-influenced areas, some speakers use n instead of l, e.g., upland Moose Cree {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} v. lowland Moose Cree {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: 'human'. Kesagami Lake Cree was an r dialect but has transitioned and merged with l dialect of Moose Cree.
													l	k	š	ē	(upland)
													r → l	k	š	ē	(Kesagami Lake)
	crl Northern East Cree ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})	crl Northern East Cree		62-ADA-af Cree, East		Eastern Cree		East Cree	Northern East Cree nort1552		y	k\č	š	ā		Also known as "James Bay Cree" or "East Main Cree". The long vowels ē and ā have merged in the northern dialect but are distinct in the southern. Southern East Cree is divided between coastal (southwestern) and inland (southeastern) varieties. Also, the inland southern dialect has lost the distinction between s and š. Here, the inland southern dialect falls in line with the rest of the Naskapi groups where both phonemes have become š. Nonetheless, the people from the two areas easily communicate. In the northern dialect, ki is found in situations were short unaccented vowel a transitioned to i without changing the k to č.
	crj Southern East Cree ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})	crj Southern East Cree		62-ADA-ag Cree, Southeast					Southern East Cree sout2978		y	č	š	ē	(coastal)
											y\n	č	š~s	ē	(inland)
nsk Naskapi		nsk Naskapi	kkaa Koksoak	62-ADA-b Innu	62-ADA-ba Mushau Innuts			62-ADA-baa Koksoak River	Naskapi	Naskapi nask1242	Western Naskapi	y	č	š~s	ā		Western Naskapi (or simply referred to as Naskapi). Spoken in Kawawachikamach, Quebec.
			dvsi Davis Inlet					62-ADA-bab Davis Inlet			Eastern Naskapi	n	č	š~s	ē		Eastern Naskapi; also known as Mushuau Innu. Spoken in Natuashish, Labrador.
moe Montagnais		moe Montagnais	poit Pointe-Bleue		62-ADA-bb Uashau Innuts + Bersimis			62-ADA-bbe Pointe Bleue	Montagnais	Montagnais mont1268	Western Montagnais	l	č	š	ē		Western Montagnais (Lehlueun); also known as the "Betsiamites dialect"
			escu Escoumains					62-ADA-bbd Escoumains
			berm Bersimis					62-ADA-bbc Bersimis
			uasi Uashaui-Innuts					62-ADA-bbb Uashaui Innuts				n	č	š~h	ē		Part of Western Montagnais, but more precisely referred to as Central Montagnais. š is realized as h in intervocalic position, especially amongst middle-aged and young speakers.
			miga Mingan					62-ADA-bba Mingan			Eastern Montagnais	n	č	š~h	ē		Eastern Montagnais (Innu-aimûn). š is mostly realized as h.
atj Atikamekw (Template:Transliteration)		atj Atikamekw	mana Manawan	62-ADA-c Atikamekw	62-ADA-ca Manawan			Western Cree (cont'd)	Attikamek	Atikamekw atik1240		r	k	š	ē
			wemo Wemotaci		62-ADA-cb Wemotaci
			optc Opitciwan		62-ADA-cc Opitciwan

Phonology

This table shows the possible consonant phonemes in the Cree language or one of its varieties.

Consonant phonemes

	Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Plosive	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Fricative		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Approximant			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Lateral			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr

Vowels

	Front		Central		Back
Close	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr			Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Mid		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Open				Template:IPA link Template:Angbr

In dictionaries focused on Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree may readily substitute Template:Angbr with Template:Angbr, while Lowland Moose Cree may readily substitute Template:Angbr with their Template:Angbr. In dictionaries focused on Southern Plains Cree, Northern Plains Cree may readily substitute Template:Angbr with Template:Angbr, while materials accommodating Rocky Cree will indicate the Plains Cree {{#invoke:IPA|main}} that is {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Rocky Cree as Template:Angbr. Similarly, in dictionaries focused on Western Swampy Cree, Woods Cree may readily substitute Template:Angbr with Template:Angbr, while materials accommodating Woods Cree will indicate the Western Swampy Cree {{#invoke:IPA|main}} that is {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Woods Cree as Template:Angbr. Atikamekw uses Template:Angbr [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}], Template:Angbr [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}], and Template:Angbr [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}] (which also serves as Template:Angbr [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}]). Eastern James Bay Cree prefers to indicate long vowels (other than {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) by doubling the vowel, while the western Cree use either a macron or circumflex diacritic; as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is always long, often it is written as just Template:Angbr without doubling or using a diacritic. While Western Cree dialects make use of Template:Angbr and either Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr, Eastern Cree dialects instead make use of Template:Angbr and either Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, or Template:Angbr.

Syntax

Cree features a complex polysynthetic morphosyntax. A common grammatical feature in Cree dialects, in terms of sentence structure, is non-regulated word order. Word order is not governed by a specific set of rules or structure; instead, "subjects and objects are expressed by means of inflection on the verb".<ref name="Thunder">Thunder, DorothyTemplate:Dead link</ref> Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO) in a sentence can vary in order, for example, SVO, VOS, OVS, and SOV.<ref name ="Thunder" /><ref name="Dahlstrom1">Dahlstrom, introduction</ref>

Obviation is also a key aspect of the Cree language(s). In a sense, the obviative can be defined as any third-person ranked lower on a hierarchy of discourse salience than some other (proximate) discourse-participant. "Obviative animate nouns, [in the Plains Cree dialect for instance], are marked by [a suffix] ending {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and are used to refer to third persons who are more peripheral in the discourse than the proximate third person".<ref name ="Dahlstrom2">Dahlstrom pp. 11</ref> For example:

The suffix {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} marks Susan as the obviative, or 'fourth' person, the person furthest away from the discourse.<ref name = "Thunder" />

The Cree language has grammatical gender in a system that classifies nouns as animate or inanimate. The distribution of nouns between animate or inanimate is not phonologically transparent, which means gender must be learned along with the noun.<ref name = "Thunder" />

As is common in polysynthetic languages, a Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example:

This means that changing the word order in Cree can place emphasis on different pieces of the sentence.<ref name=":4">Wolfart, H. C., & Carroll, J. F. (1981). Meet Cree: A guide to the Cree language (New and completely rev. ed.). Edmonton: University of Alberta Press.</ref> Wolfart and Carroll<ref name=":4" /> give the following example by transposing the two Cree words: Template:Plainlist

Writing

File:Winnipeg Forks - Trilingual Plaque.jpg

Trilingual plaque in English, French and Cree

Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern Quebec and Labrador, are traditionally written using Cree syllabics, a variant of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, but can be written with the Latin script as well. Both writing systems represent the language phonetically. Cree is always written from left to right horizontally.<ref name="Ager">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The easternmost dialects are written using the Latin script exclusively. The dialects of Plains Cree, Woods Cree, and western Swampy Cree use Western Cree syllabics and the dialects of eastern Swampy Cree, East Cree, Moose Cree, and Naskapi use Eastern Cree syllabics.

Syllabics

In Cree syllabics, each symbol, which represents a consonant, can be written four ways, each direction representing its corresponding vowel.<ref name="Ager" /> Some dialects of Cree have up to seven vowels, so additional diacritics are placed after the syllabic to represent the corresponding vowels. Finals represent stand-alone consonants.<ref name="Ager" /> The Cree language also has two semivowels. The semivowels may follow other consonants or be on their own in a word.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The following tables show the syllabaries of Eastern and Western Cree dialects, respectively:

Eastern Cree syllabary
Initial	Vowels							Final
	ê	i	o	a	î	ô	â
	ᐁ	ᐃ	ᐅ	ᐊ	ᐄ	ᐆ	ᐋ
p	ᐯ	ᐱ	ᐳ	ᐸ	ᐲ	ᐴ	ᐹ	ᑉ
t	ᑌ	ᑎ	ᑐ	ᑕ	ᑏ	ᑑ	ᑖ	ᑦ
k	ᑫ	ᑭ	ᑯ	ᑲ	ᑮ	ᑰ	ᑳ	ᒃ
c	ᒉ	ᒋ	ᒍ	ᒐ	ᒌ	ᒎ	ᒑ	ᒡ
m	ᒣ	ᒥ	ᒧ	ᒪ	ᒦ	ᒨ	ᒫ	ᒻ
n	ᓀ	ᓂ	ᓄ	ᓇ	ᓃ	ᓅ	ᓈ	ᓐ
s	ᓭ	ᓯ	ᓱ	ᓴ	ᓰ	ᓲ	ᓵ	ᔅ
sh	ᔐ	ᔑ	ᔓ	ᔕ	ᔒ	ᔔ	ᔖ	ᔥ
y	ᔦ	ᔨ	ᔪ	ᔭ	ᔩ	ᔫ	ᔮ	ᔾ (ᐤ)
l	ᓓ	ᓕ	ᓗ	ᓚ	ᓖ	ᓘ	ᓛ	ᓪ
r*	ᕃ	ᕆ	ᕈ	ᕋ	ᕇ	ᕉ	ᕌ	ᕐ
v*, f*	ᕓ	ᕕ	ᕗ	ᕙ	ᕖ	ᕘ	ᕚ	ᕝ
th*	ᕞ	ᕠ	ᕤ	ᕦ	ᕢ	ᕥ	ᕧ	ᕪ
w	ᐌ	ᐎ	ᐒ	ᐗ	ᐐ	ᐔ	ᐙ	ᐤ
h	ᐦᐁ	ᐦᐃ	ᐦᐅ	ᐦᐊ	ᐦᐄ	ᐦᐆ	ᐦᐋ	ᐦ
* Used only in foreign sounds

Western Cree syllabary
Initial	Vowels							Final
	ê	i	o	a	î	ô	â
	ᐁ	ᐃ	ᐅ	ᐊ	ᐄ	ᐆ	ᐋ
p	ᐯ	ᐱ	ᐳ	ᐸ	ᐲ	ᐴ	ᐹ	ᑊ
t	ᑌ	ᑎ	ᑐ	ᑕ	ᑏ	ᑑ	ᑖ	ᐟ
k	ᑫ	ᑭ	ᑯ	ᑲ	ᑮ	ᑰ	ᑳ	ᐠ
c	ᒉ	ᒋ	ᒍ	ᒐ	ᒌ	ᒎ	ᒑ	ᐨ
m	ᒣ	ᒥ	ᒧ	ᒪ	ᒦ	ᒨ	ᒫ	ᒼ
n	ᓀ	ᓂ	ᓄ	ᓇ	ᓃ	ᓅ	ᓈ	ᐣ
s	ᓭ	ᓯ	ᓱ	ᓴ	ᓰ	ᓲ	ᓵ	ᐢ
y	ᔦ	ᔨ	ᔪ	ᔭ	ᔩ	ᔫ	ᔮ	ᐩ (ᐝ)
th	ᖧ	ᖨ	ᖪ	ᖬ	ᖩ	ᖫ	ᖭ	‡
w	ᐍ	ᐏ	ᐓ	ᐘ	ᐑ	ᐕ	ᐚ	ᐤ
h	ᐦᐁ	ᐦᐃ	ᐦᐅ	ᐦᐊ	ᐦᐄ	ᐦᐆ	ᐦᐋ	ᐦ
hk								ᕽ
l	ᓬ
r	ᕒ

Speakers of various Cree dialects have begun creating dictionaries to serve their communities. Some projects, such as the Cree Language Resource Project, are developing an online bilingual Cree dictionary for the Cree language.

Cree syllabics has not commonly or traditionally used the period (Template:Grapheme). Instead, either a full-stop glyph (Template:Grapheme) or a double em-width space has been used between words to signal the transition from one sentence to the next.

Romanization

For Plains Cree and Swampy Cree, Standard Roman Orthography (SRO) uses fourteen letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet to denote the dialect's ten consonants (Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme and Template:Grapheme) and seven vowels (Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme and Template:Grapheme). Upper case letters are not used.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:RP For more details on the phonetic values of these letters or variant orthographies, see the § Phonology section above.

The {{#invoke:IPA|main}} sound of Woods Cree is written Template:Grapheme, or Template:Grapheme in more recent material.Template:Citation needed Plains and Swampy material written to be cross-dialectical often modify Template:Grapheme to Template:Grapheme and Template:Grapheme to Template:Grapheme when those are pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Swampy.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:RP Template:Grapheme is used in Eastern dialects where s and š are distinct phonemes. In other dialects, s is used even when pronounced like {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:Rp

Template:Grapheme and Template:Grapheme are used natively in Moose and Attikamek Cree, but in other dialects only for loanwords.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:Rp

The stops, p, t, k, and the affricate, c, can be pronounced either voiced or unvoiced, but the symbols used for writing these sounds all correspond to the unvoiced pronunciation, e.g. Template:Grapheme not Template:Grapheme, Template:Grapheme not Template:Grapheme, etc. The phoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is represented by Template:Grapheme, as it is in various other languages.

Long vowels are denoted with either a macron, as in Template:Grapheme, or a circumflex, as in Template:Grapheme.<ref name="Language Geek">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:Rp Use of either the macron or circumflex is acceptable, but usage should be consistent within a work. The vowel ē {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, used in southern Plains Cree, is always long and the grapheme Template:Grapheme is never used. In northern Plains Cree the sound has merged with ī, and thus Template:Grapheme is not used at all.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:RP

The use of unmarked Template:Grapheme and marked Template:Grapheme for the phonemes {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} emphasizes the relationship that can exist between these two vowels. There are situations where o can be lengthened to ō, as for example in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration 'sing (now)!' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration 'sing (later)!'.

In alphabetic writing, the use of punctuation has been inconsistent. For instance, in the Plains Cree dialect, the interrogative enclitic cî can be included in the sentence to mark a yes–no question<ref name="Thunder" /> such that this is sometimes considered to be sufficient without including a question mark (?). However, in many modern publications and text collections (cf. The Counselling Speeches of Jim Kâ-Nîpitêhtêw (1998)<ref>Ahenakew, Freda, and H.C. Wolfart, eds. 1998. ana kâ-pimwêwêhahk okakêskihkêmowina / The Counselling Speeches of Jim Kâ-Nîpitêhtêw. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. Template:ISBN</ref>) full punctuation is used.<ref>Okimâsis, Jean, and Arok Wolvengrey. 2008. How to Spell it in Cree. Regina: miywâsin ink. Template:ISBN</ref>

Additionally, other interrogatives (where, when, what, why, who) can be used, as in other languages, and questions marks can thus be used for such questions in Cree as well.

Hyphenation can be used to separate a particle from the root word that it prefixes, especially particles that precede verbs ("preverbs" or "indeclinable preverbs") or nouns ("prenouns" or "indeclinable prenouns"). One example is Template:Transliteration ('start speaking!'), derived from Template:Transliteration. Note that Template:Transliteration can neither stand alone as a separate word, nor is it an essential part of a stem. There are some more complex situations where it is difficult to determine whether an element is a particle. Some frequently used compound words can be written as unhyphenated.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:RP Stress can be predicted in some cases based on hyphenation.

Vowel reduction or vowel dropping, as is common of unstressed short i {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, is not denoted in order to be more cross-dialectal—instead of using apostrophes, the full unreduced vowels are written.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:Rp

Representation of sandhi (such as Template:Transliteration → Template:Transliteration) can be written or not written, as sandhi representation introduces greater complexity.<ref name="How to Spell it in Cree" />Template:Rp There are additional rules regarding h and iy that may not match a given speaker's speech, to enable a standardized transcription.

Contact languages

Cree is also a component language in at least five contact languages: Michif, Northern Michif, Bungi, Oji-Cree, and Nehipwat. Michif and Bungi are spoken by members of the Métis, and historically by some Voyageurs and European settlers of Western Canada and in parts of the Northern United States. Nehipwat and Oji-Cree are blends of Cree with Assiniboine (Nehipwat) and Ojibwe (Oji-Cree).

Michif is a mixed language which combines Cree with French. For the most part, Michif uses Cree verbs, question words, and demonstratives while using French nouns. Michif is unique to the Canadian prairie provinces as well as to North Dakota and Montana in the United States.<ref name="Bakker and Papen1">Bakker and Papen p. 295</ref> Michif is still spoken in central Canada and in North Dakota.

Bungi is a creole based on Scottish English, Scots, Scottish Gaelic, Cree, and Ojibwe.<ref name="Bakker and Papen2">Bakker and Papen p. 304</ref> Some French words have also been incorporated into its lexicon. This language flourished at and around the Red River Settlement (the modern-day location of Winnipeg, Manitoba) by the mid- to late-1800s.<ref name= "Carter">Carter p. 63</ref> Bungi is now virtually extinct, as its features are being abandoned in favour of standard English.<ref name="Bakker and Papen2" /><ref>Blain. (1989: 15)</ref>

Cree has also been incorporated into another mixed language within Canada, Nehipwat, which is a blending of Cree with Assiniboine. Nehipwat is found only in a few southern Saskatchewan reserves and is now nearing extinction. Nothing is known of its structure.<ref name="Bakker and Papen3">Bakker and Papen p. 305</ref>

Loss of language

Doug Cuthand argues three reasons for the loss of the Cree language among many speakers over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<ref name=":0">Cuthand, D. (2007). Askiwina: A Cree world. Regina: Coteau Books.</ref> First, residential schools cultivated the prejudice that their language was inferior. While students were still speaking their native language at home, their learning stopped at school. When they left residential schools as adults, they went home and their vocabulary and knowledge of language did not include concepts or forms that an adult speaker who had not been taken to a residential school would have.

Cuthand also argues that the loss of the Cree language can be attributed to the migration of native families away from the reserve, voluntarily or not. Oftentimes, the elders are left on the reserve.<ref name=":0" /> This breaks up the traditional intergenerational flow of lingual knowledge from elder to youth.

The third point Cuthand<ref name=":0" /> argues is that Cree language loss was adopted by the speakers. Parents stopped teaching their children their native language in the belief that doing so would help their children find economic success or avoid discrimination.

File:Cree map.svg

Map of Cree dialects

Legal status

File:Mistassini roadsign.jpg

A Quebec stop sign in Cree, English and French

The social and legal status of Cree varies across Canada. Cree is one of the eleven official languages of the Northwest Territories, but is only spoken by a small number of people there in the area around the town of Fort Smith.<ref name="lang">Northwest Territories Official Languages Act, 1988 Template:Webarchive (as amended 1988, 1991–1992, 2003)</ref> It is also one of two principal languages of the regional government of Eeyou Istchee James Bay in Northern Quebec, the other being French.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Robert Falcon Ouellette, a Cree Member of Parliament, played a pivotal role in promoting Indigenous languages especially Cree within the Canadian Parliament and Canadian House of Commons. He was instrumental in obtaining unanimous consent from all political parties to change the standing orders to allow Indigenous languages to be spoken in the House of Commons, with full translation services provided. This historic change enabled Ouellette to deliver a speech in Cree with interpretation supported by language educator Kevin Lewis, marking the first use of an Indigenous language in the House of Commons on Jan 28, 2019.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Furthermore, Bill C-91, the Indigenous Languages Act passed in 2019, was enacted to support and revitalize Indigenous languages across Canada. This legislation, aims to reclaim, revitalize, and maintain Indigenous languages through sustainable funding and the establishment of the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages. Ouellette was the chair of the Indigenous caucus in the House of Commons and helped ensure it passage before the election of 2019.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Support and revitalization

As of 2017, Cree had about 117,000 documented speakers.<ref name=":1" /> They are still a minority language given the dominance of English and French in Canada. There are programs in place to maintain and revitalize the language, though. In the Quebec James Bay Cree community, a resolution was put into action in 1988 that made Cree the language of education in primary schools and eventually elementary schools.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The Mistissini council decided to require their employees to learn Cree syllabics in 1991.<ref name=":3" />

The Cree School Board now has its annual report available in both English and Cree.<ref name=":3" />

There is a push to increase the availability of Cree stations on the radio.<ref name=":3" />

In 2013, free Cree language electronic books for beginners became available for Alberta language teachers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The Government of the Northwest Territories<ref name=":2" /> releases an annual report on First Nations languages. The 2016–2017 report features successes they have had in revitalizing and supporting and projects they are working on. For example, they released a Medicinal Plant Guide that had information in both Cree and English. An important part of making the guide was input from the elders. Another accomplishment was the dubbing of a movie in Cree. They are working on broadcasting a radio station that "will give listeners music and a voice for our languages".<ref name=":2" />

Joshua Whitehead is one writer who has used the Cree language as part of his poetry.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

See also

• Cree people

Bibliography

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• Template:Cite book [Cree–English English–Cree Dictionary – Volume 1: Cree-English; Volume 2: English-Cree].

External links

• The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas
• The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas, .pdf
• The Gift of Language and Culture website
• Our Languages: Cree (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre)
• Languagegeek: Cree—OpenType font repository of aboriginal languages (including Cree).
• Path of the Elders – Explore Treaty 9, Aboriginal Cree and First Nations history.

Lessons

• Nehinawe: Speak Cree Template:Webarchive
• Cree Language Lessons Template:Webarchive
• The East Cree language web
• Cree on-line Spelling Lessons

Dictionaries

• Proto-Cree dictionary
• Moose Cree dictionary
• Online Eastern James Bay Cree dictionary (covers both Northern and Southern dialects)
• Online Cree dictionary
• Wasaho Ininiwimowin (Wasaho Cree) Dictionary at Kwayaciiwin Education Resource Centre

E-books

• Little Cree Books