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Florian Znaniecki

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Florian Witold Znaniecki ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}; 15 January 1882 – 23 March 1958) was a Polish-born American philosopher and sociologist who taught and wrote in Poland and in the United States. Over the course of his work, he shifted his focus from philosophy to sociology. He remains a major figure in the history of Polish and American sociology; the founder of Polish academic sociology, and of an entire school of thought in sociology.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/>

He won international renown as co-author, with William I. Thomas, of the study, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (1918–1920), which is considered the foundation of modern empirical sociology. He also made major contributions to sociological theory, introducing terms such as "humanistic coefficient" and "culturalism".

In Poland, he established the first Polish department of sociology at Adam Mickiewicz University, where he worked from 1920 to 1939. His career in the US began at the University of Chicago (1917 to 1919) and continued at Columbia University (1932 to 1934 and 1939 to 1940) and at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1942 to 1950).

He was the 44th President of the American Sociological Association (for the year 1954).

LifeEdit

Childhood and educationEdit

Florian Znaniecki was born on 15 January 1882 at Świątniki, Congress Poland, a state controlled by the Russian Empire<ref name="Dulczewski1986-13"/> to Leon Znaniecki and Amelia, née Holtz.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He received early schooling from tutors, then attended secondary schools at Warsaw and Częstochowa.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-13"/> While in secondary school, he was a member of an underground study group, specializing in history, literature and philosophy.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-13"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-2425"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-3334"/> His secondary-school grades were average at best, and he had to repeat a year of school; this was largely due to his extracurricular interest in Polish-language study, which was banned under the Russified school program.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-2425"/> As a youth, he wrote some poetry, including a drama, Cheops (1903).<ref name="Znaniecki1994-231"/><ref name="Szacki2002-754"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-2533"/> A poem of his, "Do Prometeusza" ("To Prometheus"), was included in a 1900 anthology; however, neither he in later life, nor literary critics, judged his poetry outstanding.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-2533"/>

He entered the Imperial University of Warsaw in 1902, but was soon expelled after taking part in protests against the Russian administration's curtailment of student rights.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-3334"/><ref name="Znaniecki1994-231"/> Threatened with conscription into the Imperial Russian Army, he chose to emigrate,<ref name="Znaniecki1994-231"/> and in early 1904 he left Warsaw for Switzerland.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-37"/>

During that period, he was briefly an editor at a French-language literary magazine, Nice Illustrée (late 1904 – early 1905);<ref name="Znaniecki1965-13"/><ref name="Znaniecki1994-232"/> faked his own death; briefly served in the French Foreign Legion in Algeria; and worked at a flea market, on a farm, in a traveling circus,<ref name="Znaniecki1965-13"/><ref name="Znaniecki1994-232"/> and as a librarian at the Polish Museum in Rapperswil, Switzerland.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-43"/>

In Switzerland, he soon resumed his university studies, first at the University of Geneva (1905–1907), then at the University of Zurich (1907–1908), eventually transferring to the Sorbonne in Paris, France (1908–1909), where he attended lectures by sociologist Émile Durkheim.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-13"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-45"/><ref name="Znaniecki1994-233"/><ref name="Znaniecki1994-234"/> In 1909, after the death of his supervisor Frédéric Rauh, he returned to Poland, where in 1910 he obtained his PhD degree at Jagiellonian University, in Kraków, under a new supervisor, Template:Ill.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-4649"/>

Early Polish careerEdit

That year he also joined the Template:Ill, in which he would be highly active over the next few years, becoming its vice president in 1913–1914.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-5153"/> Much of his early academic work at that time could be classified as philosophy.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-55"/> In 1909, aged 27, he published his first academic paper, Etyka filozoficzna i nauka o wartościach moralnych ("Philosophical Ethics and the Science of Moral Values");<ref name="Dulczewski1984-54"/> a year later, he published Zagadnienie wartości w filozofii (The Question of Values in Philosophy), based on his doctoral dissertation,<ref name="Znaniecki1965-13"/><ref name="Znaniecki1994-234"/> and a paper, Myśl i rzeczywistosc ("Mind and Reality").<ref name="Dulczewski1984-63"/> In 1912, he published a new book, Humanizm i Poznanie (Humanism and Knowledge), and a paper, Elementy rzeczywistości praktycznej ("Elements of Practical Reality").<ref name="Dulczewski1984-63"/> A year later, he published an annotated translation of Henri Bergson's Creative Evolution<ref name="Dulczewski1984-76-77"/> and a paper, Znaczenie rozwoju świata i człowieka ("The Meaning of World and Human Development").<ref name="Dulczewski1984-81"/> The year 1914 saw the publication of his papers, Formy i zasady twórczości moralnej ("Forms and Principles of Moral Creativity")<ref name="Dulczewski1984-95"/> and Zasada względności jako podstawa filozofii ("The Principle of Relativity as a Foundation of Philosophy").<ref name="Dulczewski1984-54"/> His works, published in Polish, were well received by the Polish scholarly community and intelligentsia.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-101"/>

Due to his past political activism, he was unable to secure a post at a major university.<ref name="Bulmer1986-48"/> From 1912 to 1914, he lectured at a novel women's institution of higher education, the Template:Ill.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-5153"/> During his studies, he had worked at several European institutions dealing with Polish immigrants; he would build on his experiences by becoming involved with the Warsaw-based Society for the Welfare of Émigrés (Towarzystwo Opieki nad Wychodźcami), where he worked in 1910–1914.<ref name="Znaniecki1994-233"/><ref name="Znaniecki1994-234"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-106"/> By 1911, he was the Society's director and (1911–1912) editor of its journal, Wychodźca Polski (The Polish Émigré).<ref name="Dulczewski1984-109-110"/> Znaniecki became an expert on Polish migration, in 1914 authoring for the government a 500-page report, Wychodźtwo Sezonowe (Seasonal Migration).<ref name="Dulczewski1984-131-134"/>

Work with ThomasEdit

File:Znaniecki 1918 the polish peasant in europe and america cover.png
Volume I (1918) of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, Zaniecki's most famous work written during his first U.S. stay

A year earlier, in 1913, Znaniecki had met William I. Thomas, an American sociologist who had come to Poland in connection with his research on Polish immigrants in the United States. Thomas and Znaniecki had begun to collaborate, and soon Thomas invited Znaniecki to come to Chicago to continue work with him in the United States.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-131-134"/><ref name="Znaniecki1965-14"/> In July 1914, just on the eve of World War I, Znaniecki left Poland to work with Thomas as a research assistant.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-14"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-140"/> From 1917 to 1919, Znaniecki also lectured in sociology at the University of Chicago.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-185-186"/>

Their work culminated in co-authoring of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (1918–1920),<ref name="Dulczewski1984-144-144"/> considered a sociology classic.<ref name="Bulmer1986-45"/> It was his collaboration with Thomas that marked the transition in Znaniecki's career from philosopher to sociologist.<ref name="Bulmer1986-50"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-189"/> Znaniecki stayed with Thomas in Chicago until mid-1919, when he moved to New York, following Thomas, who had lost his job at Chicago due to a spurious scandal.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-164-165"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-190-191"/>

That year Znaniecki published a new book, still mostly philosophical rather than sociological, Cultural Reality. Published in English, it was a synthesis of his philosophical thought.<ref name="Bulmer1986-50"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-186-187"/> In New York, Thomas and Znaniecki carried on research for the Carnegie Corporation on the process of immigrant Americanization.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-190-191"/> Znaniecki contributed to Thomas' book, Old World Traits Transplanted, and published an anonymous solicited article on that topic in the February 1920 Atlantic Monthly.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-190-191"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-192"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Founding Polish sociologyEdit

File:Znaniecki Plaque Poznan.JPG
Florian Znaniecki plaque, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

Poland had regained independence in 1918, following World War I. In 1919, Znaniecki contacted the newly founded Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public Education, offering to return to Poland if the Ministry could help him secure a chair at a Polish university.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-207"/> He proposed creating a novel Institute of Sociology, but bureaucracy and communication delays resulted in that idea being shelved, and he was offered a philosophy professorship at the newly organized Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-208-209"/>

In 1920, Znaniecki returned to the newly established Second Polish Republic, where at Poznań University he soon became Poland's first chair in sociology.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-14"/><ref name="Sztompka2002-18"/><ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/> He accomplished this by renaming the department, originally "Third Philosophical Department", to "Department of Sociology and Cultural Philosophy", doing the same for his chair, and establishing a Sociological Seminary.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-211"/> That same year he also founded the Polish Institute of Sociology (Polski Instytut Socjologiczny), the fifth-oldest sociological institute in Europe.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-235"/>

In 1927, his department was officially renamed to "department of sociology", and in 1930, the department gained authorization to issue degrees in sociology.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-213-214"/> Also in 1930, the Polish Institute of Sociology began publishing the first Polish sociological journal, Przegląd Socjologiczny (The Sociological Review), with Znaniecki its chief editor from 1930 to 1939.<ref name="Sztompka2002-18"/><ref name="Szacki2002-752"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-240-241"/> That year, the Institute organized Poland's first academic sociologists' conference.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-243"/> Due to his role as founder of so many of its building blocks, Znaniecki is considered as one of the fathers of sociology in Poland.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/>

Later U.S. careerEdit

Keeping in touch with American sociologists, Znaniecki lectured as a visiting professor<ref name="Dulczewski1984-226"/> at Columbia University in New York City in 1932–34 and during the summer of 1939.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/> That summer ended the Polish stage of his career, as the invasion of Poland and the start of World War II prevented his return to Poland.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/> He was already aboard a ship bound for Poland when his travel was cut short in the United Kingdom. He still briefly considered returning to Poland, where his wife and daughter remained; however, faced with the occupation, he returned to the United States in 1940.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-277-279"/> His wife and daughter, after briefly being imprisoned in a Nazi concentration camp, joined him.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/>

With help from American colleagues, Znaniecki obtained an extension of his appointment at Columbia University through mid-1940.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-280-282"/> He then moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and in 1942, obtained American citizenship, allowing him to transition from a visiting to a regular professorship.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-284"/> He taught at the University of Illinois until his retirement, deciding not to return to the communist Polish People's Republic, established in the aftermath of World War II, despite the offer of a chair at Poznań University.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-289"/> In 1950, he retired, becoming a professor emeritus.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-302"/>

He was 44th President of the American Sociological Association (for 1954).<ref name="asanet"/> His presidential address, "Basic Problems of Contemporary Sociology," was delivered on September 8, 1954 at the Association's annual meeting and was later published in the American Sociological Review.<ref name="october"/>

He died on March 23, 1958 in Champaign, Illinois.<ref name="Dulczewski1986-26"/> The cause of death was arteriosclerosis.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-370-373"/> His funeral took place on March 26, and he was buried at Roselawn Champaign Cemetery.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-370-373"/>

FamilyEdit

In 1906, Znaniecki married a fellow Polish student at the University of Geneva, Emilia Szwejkowska.<ref name="Dulczewski1992-238"/> They had a son, poet and writer Template:Ill, born in 1908.<ref name="Dulczewski1992-238"/> Emilia died in 1915.<ref name="Dulczewski1992-238"/>

The next year, Znaniecki married Eileen Markley (1886–1976).<ref name="Dulczewski1992-238"/> They had one daughter, sociologist Helena Znaniecki Lopata, born in 1925.<ref name="Dulczewski1992-238"/>

ImportanceEdit

Polish sociologist and historian of ideas Jerzy Szacki writes that Znaniecki's major contributions include: the founding of sociology in Poland; his work in empirical sociology; and his work in sociological theory.<ref name="Szacki2002-752"/> Szacki notes that Znaniecki sought to bridge a number of gaps: between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches; between objectivity and subjectivity; between humanistic and naturalistic methodologies and viewpoints; and between American and European intellectual traditions.<ref name="Szacki2002-779781"/>

Szacki writes that, while Znaniecki's theoretical contributions were subsequently pushed into the background by Talcott Parsons' "functionalism",<ref name="Szacki2002-753"/> Znaniecki offered the most ambitious sociological theory known to America before Parsons.<ref name="Szacki2002-779781"/>

Znaniecki's most famous work remains The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (1918–1920), co-authored with William I. Thomas. His other major works include Wstęp do socjologii (An Introduction to Sociology, 1922), The Method of Sociology (1934), Social Actions (1936), The Social Role of the Man of Knowledge (1940) and Cultural Sciences (1952).<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/>

ThemesEdit

Empirical sociologyEdit

Znaniecki's contributions to empirical sociology began after, and were influenced by, his collaboration with William I. Thomas.<ref name="Szacki2002-752"/> The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (1918–1920), a five-volume work which he wrote with Thomas, is considered a classic of empirical sociology.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/> It is a study of Polish immigrants to America, based on personal documents.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/> The work became a landmark study of Americanization — of how new immigrants to the United States "become Americans".<ref name="Dulczewski1984-175-177"/><ref name="Dulczewski1984-180-184"/>

This work represents Znaniecki's most valued contribution to empirical sociology. Most of his other works focused on theory, the only other notable exception being Miasto w świadomości jego obywateli (The City in the Consciousness of its Citizens, 1931).<ref name="Szacki2002-777778"/><ref name="Szacki2002-760"/>

Sociology: theory and definitionEdit

A key element of Znaniecki's sociological theory is his view of sociology in particular, and of the social sciences in general, as a scientific field uniquely different from the natural sciences.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-250-252"/> Znaniecki defines sociology as a study of social actions.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-250-252"/> His recommended methodology was analytic induction: analysis of typical case studies, and generalization from them.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-250-252"/>

Znaniecki's theories form a major part of sociology's action theory,<ref name="Szacki2002-753"/> and his work is a major part of the foundation of humanistic sociology.<ref name="Szacki2002-753"/> Another term connected with Znaniecki's theories is "systematic sociology" ("socjologia systematyczna").<ref name="Szacki2002-759"/> He sought to create a grand sociological theory, one that would bridge the gap between empirical sociology and more theoretical approaches.<ref name="Szacki2002-760"/>

Znaniecki criticized the widespread definition of sociology as the study of society.<ref name="Szacki2002-766"/><ref name="Znaniecki1965-16"/> In Znaniecki's culturalist perspective, sociology is a study of culture (though it is not the study of culture, as Znaniecki recognized that other social sciences also study culture).<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/><ref name="Szacki2002-763"/> His definition of sociology has been described as that of "a cultural science whose function is to study systems of social interaction based upon patterns of values and norms of behaviour, through the use of the humanistic coefficient", or more simply, "the investigation of organized, interdependent interaction among human beings."<ref name="Znaniecki1965-16"/> The part of the culture that sociology focused on was that of social relation or interaction.<ref name="Szacki2002-766"/>

Znaniecki saw culture as a field separate from nature, but also from individuals' perceptions.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/> The essence of culture is socially constructed objects.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/> He was one of the first sociologists to begin analyzing personal documents such as letters, autobiographies, diaries, and the like.<ref name="Szacki2002-775"/> He considered the analysis of such documents an important part of the humanistic-coefficient method.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/>

Znaniecki saw sociology as an objective, inductive and generalizing science.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-16"/> According to Szacki, Znaniecki viewed sociology as a nomothetic science that should be able to use a methodology similar to that of the natural sciences<ref name="Szacki2002-772773"/> (however, Znaniecki's daughter Helena Znaniecki Lopata, in her introduction to Social Relations and Social Roles, contradicts Szacki, writing that, for Znaniecki, sociology was a science "whose subject matter calls for a method different from that of the natural sciences."<ref name="Znaniecki1965-16"/>). In 1934 he formulated the principle of analytic induction, designed to identify universal propositions and causal laws.<ref name="Szacki2002-773774"/> He contrasted it with enumerative research, which provided mere correlations and could not account for exceptions in statistical relationships.<ref name="Szacki2002-773774"/> He was also critical of the statistical method, which he did not see as very useful.<ref name="Szacki2002-773774"/>

In addition to the science of sociology, Znaniecki was also deeply interested in the larger field of the sociology of science.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/> He analyzed the social roles of scientists, and the concept of a school of thought.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/>

Four social systemsEdit

According to Znaniecki, sociology can be divided into the study of four dynamic social systems: social action theory, social relation theory, social actors theory, and social groups theory.<ref name="Szacki2002-766767"/> Znaniecki saw social actions as the foundation of a society, as they give rise to more complex social relations, and he saw this theory as the foundation of all the others.<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/><ref name="Szacki2002-766767"/> Unlike Max Weber, he did not believe that everything can be reduced to social actions; he was also quite skeptical of any insights coming from the science of psychology, which he held in low esteem.<ref name="Szacki2002-766767"/>

The four major forms of cooperative interaction, or four social systems, in growing complexity, were:

  • social actions (in Polish, "czyny społeczne" or "czynności społeczne"): the most basic type of social fact;<ref name="Szacki2002-767"/>
  • social relations (in Polish, "stosunki społeczne"): these require at least two persons and a mutual obligation; the study of social relations is the study of norms regulating social actions;<ref name="Szacki2002-768"/>
  • social personalities (in Polish, "osoby społeczne" or "osobowości społeczne"): the combined picture that emerges from a number of different social roles that an individual has;<ref name="Szacki2002-768769"/>
  • social group (in Polish, "grupa społeczna"): any group which is recognized by some as a separate entity;<ref name="Szacki2002-770771"/> Znaniecki saw a society as a group of groups, but denied it primacy as an area that the sociologist should focus on (while at the same time recognizing that most sociologists differed on this).<ref name="Szacki2002-771"/>

The four-category division described above appeared in his 1934 book, The Method of Sociology. By 1958 he had reformulated the division, and was speaking instead of social relations, social roles, social groups, and societies.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-16"/><ref name="Znaniecki1965-19"/>

Sociology of cultureEdit

Znaniecki coined the term "humanistic coefficient" for a method of social research by way of data analysis that emphasizes participants' perceptions of the experience being analyzed.<ref name="archive"/> The humanistic coefficient sees all social facts as being created by social actors and as being understandable only from their perspective.<ref name="Sztompka2002-2425"/> Thus the sociologist ought to study reality by trying to understand how others see the world, not (objectively) as an independent observer; in other words, the scientist needs to understand the subject's world.<ref name="Sztompka2002-2425"/><ref name="Szacki2002-761"/> While some have criticized this approach as being too close to subjectivism, Znaniecki himself saw it as anti-subjectivist; he observed that social facts such as cultural systems can exist even if no one perceives their existence.<ref name="Szacki2002-762763"/> He was also skeptical of any value coming from personal, subjective observations, arguing that such observations have value only if they can be objectively described.<ref name="Szacki2002-776777"/> He argued that the difference between the natural and social sciences lies not in the difference between objective and subjective experiences, but in the subject being studied: for Znaniecki, the natural sciences studied things, and the social sciences studied cultural values.<ref name="Szacki2002-762763"/>

Znaniecki characterized the world as being caught within two contrary modes of reflection; idealism and realism.<ref name="Hałas2010"/><ref name="StråthWitoszek1999"/> He proposed a third way, which he called "culturalism".<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253"/><ref name="Hałas2010"/><ref name="StråthWitoszek1999"/> His culturalism was one of the founding ideas of modern antipositivist and antinaturalist sociology.<ref name="Sztompka2002-2425"/> The term "culturalism" was introduced into English in his book, Cultural Reality (1919), and was translated into Polish as "kulturalizm"; previously Znaniecki had discussed the concept in Polish as "humanism" ("humanizm").<ref name="Dulczewski1984-186-187"/>

Elżbieta Hałas has insisted on a gradual evolution of Znaniecki's sociology of culture from Cultural Reality to Cultural Sciences, his most reviewed book, which was published more than thirty years later, in 1952. By that time, Znaniecki saw the cultural order as "axionormative", a universal concept encompassing “relationships among all kind of human actions” and the corresponding values. Hałas noted that this approach put him at odds with what was the dominant approach of the sociology of culture in the 1950s, whose most authoritative exponents were Americans who regarded Znaniecki's approach as typically European and hardly applicable to the analysis of culture in the United States.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Other themesEdit

Znaniecki's work also touched on many other areas of sociology, such as intergroup conflict, urban sociology, and rural sociology.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-256-259"/>

WorksEdit

Znaniecki's first academic works, of the 1910s, were more philosophical than sociological in nature; beginning in the 1920s, his works were primarily sociological.<ref name="Szacki2002-754"/> His Cultural Reality (1919) was a synthesis of his philosophical thought,<ref name="Dulczewski1984-186-187"/> but the simultaneous publication of his much more popular The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (1918–1920) associated his name in academic circles primarily with sociology rather than with philosophy.<ref name="Dulczewski1984-189"/> His early works focused on analysis of culture and strongly criticized the principles of sociological naturalism.<ref name="Szacki2002-755757"/> Szacki notes a puzzling gap in Znaniecki's research: while he was well-read in, and engaged with, most previous and current theories, he largely ignored the works of some notable sociologists of his time such as Max Weber, Vilfredo Pareto and Talcott Parsons.<ref name="Szacki2002-779781"/> On the other hand, his works engaged closely with those of William I. Thomas, Georg Simmel, Robert E. Park, and Émile Durkheim.<ref name="Szacki2002-779781"/>

His The Method of Sociology first introduced his concept of divisions within subfields of sociology.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/> His most notable works included two books published in the same year (1952): Modern Nationalities, and Cultural Sciences. The former is an analysis of the evolution of national-culture societies, and the latter presents a theoretical study of the relation between sociology and other sciences.<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/> Znaniecki never finished his magnum opus, Systematic Sociology, which would eventually be collected and published posthumously in its unfinished but final form as Social Relations and Social Roles: The Unfinished Systematic Sociology (1965).<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15"/><ref name="Znaniecki1965-12"/>

List of worksEdit

Roughly half of Znaniecki's published works are in English; the rest are in Polish.<ref name="Szacki2002-752"/>

In English:

Books

Articles

In Polish:

  • Zagadnienie wartości w filozofii (The Question of Value in Philosophy), Warsaw, 1910.
  • Humanizm i poznanie (Humanism and Knowledge), Warsaw, 1912.
  • Upadek cywilizacji zachodniej: Szkic z pogranicza filozofii kultury i socjologii (The Decline of Western Civilization: A Sketch from the Interface of Cultural Philosophy and Sociology), Poznań, 1921.
  • Wstęp do socjologii (An Introduction to Sociology), Poznań, 1922.
  • Template:Cite book
  • Socjologia wychowania (The Sociology of Education), Warsaw (vol. I: 1928; vol. II: 1930).
  • Miasto w świadomości jego obywateli (The City in the Consciousness of Its Citizens), Poznań, 1931.
  • Ludzie teraźniejsi a cywilizacja przyszłości (Contemporary People and the Civilization of the Future), Lwów, 1934.

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

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<ref name="Dulczewski1984-5153">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Dulczewski1984-54">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Dulczewski1984-55">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Dulczewski1984-63">Template:Cite book</ref>

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<ref name="Dulczewski1984-81">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Dulczewski1984-95">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Sztompka2002-5253">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Dulczewski1986-13">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1965-13">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1994-231">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-754">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1994-232">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1994-233">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1994-234">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1965-14">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Sztompka2002-18">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1965-15">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-752">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="asanet">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

<ref name="october">ASR October 1954 Vol 19 No 5, pp 519–524)</ref>

<ref name="Dulczewski1986-26">Template:Cite book</ref> <ref name="Dulczewski1992-238">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-779781">Template:Cite book</ref>

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<ref name="Szacki2002-777778">Template:Cite book</ref>

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<ref name="Szacki2002-776777">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Hałas2010">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="StråthWitoszek1999">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-766">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1965-16">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-763">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-775">Template:Cite book</ref>

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<ref name="Szacki2002-770771">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-771">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1965-19">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Szacki2002-755757">Template:Cite book</ref>

<ref name="Znaniecki1965-12">Template:Cite book</ref> </references>

Further readingEdit

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External linksEdit

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