Holmium

Template:Good article Template:Infobox holmium Holmium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ho and atomic number 67. It is a rare-earth element and the eleventh member of the lanthanide series. It is a relatively soft, silvery, fairly corrosion-resistant and malleable metal. Like many other lanthanides, holmium is too reactive to be found in native form, as pure holmium slowly forms a yellowish oxide coating when exposed to air. When isolated, holmium is relatively stable in dry air at room temperature. However, it reacts with water and corrodes readily, and also burns in air when heated.

In nature, holmium occurs together with the other rare-earth metals (like thulium). It is a relatively rare lanthanide, making up 1.4 parts per million of the Earth's crust, an abundance similar to tungsten. Holmium was discovered through isolation by Swedish chemist Per Theodor Cleve. It was also independently discovered by Jacques-Louis Soret and Marc Delafontaine, who together observed it spectroscopically in 1878. Its oxide was first isolated from rare-earth ores by Cleve in 1878. The element's name comes from Holmia, the Latin name for the city of Stockholm.<ref name="Virginia" /><ref name="RSHolmium" /><ref name="Stwertka">Template:Cite book</ref>

Like many other lanthanides, holmium is found in the minerals monazite and gadolinite and is usually commercially extracted from monazite using ion-exchange techniques. Its compounds in nature and in nearly all of its laboratory chemistry are trivalently oxidized, containing Ho(III) ions. Trivalent holmium ions have fluorescent properties similar to many other rare-earth ions (while yielding their own set of unique emission light lines), and thus are used in the same way as some other rare earths in certain laser and glass-colorant applications.

Holmium has the highest magnetic permeability and magnetic saturation of any element and is thus used for the pole pieces of the strongest static magnets. Because holmium strongly absorbs neutrons, it is also used as a burnable poison in nuclear reactors.

PropertiesEdit

Holmium is the eleventh member of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears in period 6, between the lanthanides dysprosium to its left and erbium to its right, and above the actinide einsteinium.

Physical propertiesEdit

With a boiling point of Template:Convert, holmium is the sixth most volatile lanthanide after ytterbium, europium, samarium, thulium and dysprosium. At standard temperature and pressure, holmium, like many of the second half of the lanthanides, normally assumes a hexagonally close-packed (hcp) structure.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Its 67 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe] 4f¹¹ 6s², so that it has thirteen valence electrons filling the 4f and 6s subshells.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Holmium, like all of the lanthanides, is paramagnetic at standard temperature and pressure.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, holmium is ferromagnetic at temperatures below Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It has the highest magnetic moment (Template:Val) of any naturally occurring element<ref name="emsley226" /> and possesses other unusual magnetic properties. When combined with yttrium, it forms highly magnetic compounds.<ref name="appl" />

Chemical propertiesEdit

Holmium metal tarnishes slowly in air, forming a yellowish oxide layer that has an appearance similar to that of iron rust. It burns readily to form holmium(III) oxide:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

4 Ho + 3 O₂ → 2 Ho₂O₃

It is a relatively soft and malleable element that is fairly corrosion-resistant and chemically stable in dry air at standard temperature and pressure. In moist air and at higher temperatures, however, it quickly oxidizes, forming a yellowish oxide.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In pure form, holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster.

Holmium is quite electropositive: on the Pauling electronegativity scale, it has an electronegativity of 1.23.<ref name="Win">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is generally trivalent. It reacts slowly with cold water and quickly with hot water to form holmium(III) hydroxide:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

2 Ho (s) + 6 H₂O (l) → 2 Ho(OH)₃ (aq) + 3 H₂ (g)

Holmium metal reacts with all the stable halogens:<ref name="Webelements" />

2 Ho (s) + 3 F₂ (g) → 2 HoF₃ (s) [pink]

2 Ho (s) + 3 Cl₂ (g) → 2 HoCl₃ (s) [yellow]

2 Ho (s) + 3 Br₂ (g) → 2 HoBr₃ (s) [yellow]

2 Ho (s) + 3 I₂ (g) → 2 HoI₃ (s) [yellow]

Holmium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Ho(III) ions, which exist as a [Ho(OH₂)₉]³⁺ complexes:<ref name="Webelements">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

2 Ho (s) + 3 H₂SO₄ (aq) → 2 Ho³⁺ (aq) + 3 Template:Chem (aq) + 3 H₂ (g)

Oxidation statesEdit

As with many lanthanides, holmium is usually found in the +3 oxidation state, forming compounds such as holmium(III) fluoride (HoF₃) and holmium(III) chloride (HoCl₃). Holmium in solution is in the form of Ho³⁺ surrounded by nine molecules of water. Holmium dissolves in acids.<ref name="emsley226">Template:Cite book</ref> However, holmium is also found to exist in +2, +1 and 0 oxidation states.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":0" />

IsotopesEdit

Template:Further

The isotopes of holmium range from ¹⁴⁰Ho to ¹⁷⁵Ho. The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, ¹⁶⁵Ho, is positron emission, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before ¹⁶⁵Ho are terbium and dysprosium isotopes, and the primary products after are erbium isotopes.<ref name="CRC" />

Natural holmium consists of one primordial isotope, holmium-165;<ref name="emsley226" /> it is the only isotope of holmium that is thought to be stable, although it is predicted to undergo alpha decay to terbium-161 with a very long half-life.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Of the 35 synthetic radioactive isotopes that are known, the most stable one is holmium-163 (¹⁶³Ho), with a half-life of 4570 years.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> All other radioisotopes have ground-state half-lives not greater than 1.117 days, with the longest, holmium-166 (¹⁶⁶Ho) having a half-life of 26.83 hours,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and most have half-lives under 3 hours.

^166m1Ho has a half-life of around 1200 years.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The high excitation energy, resulting in a particularly rich spectrum of decay gamma rays produced when the metastable state de-excites, makes this isotope useful as a means for calibrating gamma ray spectrometers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

CompoundsEdit

Oxides and chalcogenidesEdit

File:Holmium(III) oxide.jpg

Ho₂O₃, left: natural light, right: under a cold-cathode fluorescent lamp

Holmium(III) oxide is the only oxide of holmium. It changes its color depending on the lighting conditions. In daylight, it has a yellowish color. Under trichromatic light, it appears orange red, almost indistinguishable from the appearance of erbium oxide under the same lighting conditions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The color change is related to the sharp emission lines of trivalent holmium ions acting as red phosphors.<ref name="Su 2008">Template:Cite journal</ref> Holmium(III) oxide appears pink under a cold-cathode fluorescent lamp.

Other chalcogenides are known for holmium. Holmium(III) sulfide has orange-yellow crystals in the monoclinic crystal system,<ref name="CRC" /> with the space group P2₁/m (No. 11).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Under high pressure, holmium(III) sulfide can form in the cubic and orthorhombic crystal systems.<ref name="E. Yu Tonkov">Template:Cite book</ref> It can be obtained by the reaction of holmium(III) oxide and hydrogen sulfide at Template:Convert.<ref name="Meyer">Template:Cite book</ref> Holmium(III) selenide is also known. It is antiferromagnetic below 6 K.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

HalidesEdit

All four trihalides of holmium are known. Holmium(III) fluoride is a yellowish powder that can be produced by reacting holmium(III) oxide and ammonium fluoride, then crystallising it from the ammonium salt formed in solution.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Holmium(III) chloride can be prepared in a similar way, with ammonium chloride instead of ammonium fluoride.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It has the YCl₃ layer structure in the solid state.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> These compounds, as well as holmium(III) bromide and holmium(III) iodide, can be obtained by the direct reaction of the elements:<ref name="Webelements" />

2 Ho + 3 X₂ → 2 HoX₃

In addition, holmium(III) iodide can be obtained by the direct reaction of holmium and mercury(II) iodide, then removing the mercury by distillation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Organoholmium compoundsEdit

Template:See also Organoholmium compounds are very similar to those of the other lanthanides, as they all share an inability to undergo π backbonding. They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric.<ref name="Greenwood1248">Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1248Template:Ndash1249</ref>

HistoryEdit

Holmium ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Latin name for Stockholm) was discovered by the Swiss chemists Jacques-Louis Soret and Marc Delafontaine in 1878 who noticed the aberrant spectrographic emission spectrum of the then-unknown element (they called it "Element X").<ref>Template:Cite journal </ref><ref>Template:Cite journal </ref>

The Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve also independently discovered the element while he was working on erbia earth (erbium oxide). He was the first to isolate impure oxide of the new element.<ref name="RSHolmium">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Virginia">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Weeks">Template:Cite book</ref> Using the method developed by the Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, Cleve first removed all of the known contaminants from erbia. The result of that effort was two new materials, one brown and one green. He named the brown substance holmia (after the Latin name for Cleve's home town, Stockholm) and the green one thulia. Holmia was later found to be the holmium oxide, and thulia was thulium oxide.<ref name="emsley225" /> The pure oxide was only isolated in 1911 and the metal in 1939 by Heinrich Bommer.<ref name="Sicius-2024">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In the English physicist Henry Moseley's classic paper on atomic numbers, holmium was assigned the value 66. The holmium preparation he had been given to investigate had been impure, dominated by neighboring dysprosium. He would have seen x-ray emission lines for both elements, but assumed that the dominant ones belonged to holmium, instead of the dysprosium impurity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Occurrence and productionEdit

File:Gadolinitas.jpg

A specimen of gadolinite

Like all the other rare-earth elements, holmium is not naturally found as a free element. It occurs combined with other elements in gadolinite, monazite and other rare-earth minerals. No holmium-dominant mineral has yet been found. The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia with reserves of holmium estimated as 400,000 tonnes.<ref name="emsley225" /> The annual production of holmium metal is of about 10 tonnes per year.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Holmium makes up 1.3 parts per million of the Earth's crust by mass.<ref name=CRCAbundanceTable>ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST AND IN THE SEA, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 97th edition (2016–2017), p. 14-17</ref> Holmium makes up 1 part per million of the soils, 400 parts per quadrillion of seawater, and almost none of Earth's atmosphere, which is very rare for a lanthanide.<ref name="emsley225">Template:Cite book</ref> It makes up 500 parts per trillion of the universe by mass.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Holmium is commercially extracted by ion exchange from monazite sand (0.05% holmium), but is still difficult to separate from other rare earths. The element has been isolated through the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or fluoride with metallic calcium.<ref name="CRC" /> Its estimated abundance in the Earth's crust is 1.3 mg/kg. Holmium obeys the Oddo–Harkins rule: as an odd-numbered element, it is less abundant than both dysprosium and erbium. However, it is the most abundant of the odd-numbered heavy lanthanides. Of the lanthanides, only promethium, thulium, lutetium and terbium are less abundant on Earth. The principal current source are some of the ion-adsorption clays of southern China. Some of these have a rare-earth composition similar to that found in xenotime or gadolinite. Yttrium makes up about two-thirds of the total by mass; holmium is around 1.5%.<ref name="patnaik">Template:Cite book</ref> Holmium is relatively inexpensive for a rare-earth metal with the price about 1000 USD/kg.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

ApplicationsEdit

File:HoOxideSolution.jpg

A solution of 4% holmium oxide in 10% perchloric acid, permanently fused into a quartz cuvette as an optical calibration standard

Glass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide solutions (usually in perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption peaks in the spectral range 200 to 900 nm. They are therefore used as a calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers.<ref name="Allen 2007">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Travis 2002">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The radioactive but long-lived ^166m1Ho is used in calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Holmium is used to create the strongest artificially generated magnetic fields, when placed within high-strength magnets as a magnetic pole piece (also called a magnetic flux concentrator).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Holmium is also used in the manufacture of some permanent magnets.

Holmium can act as a sensitizer in sodium yttrium fluoride which takes advantage of its absorption in the NIR-II window. Holmium allows for lanthanide nanomaterials to have tunable emission and excitation in the NIR-II. Under 1143 nm excitation the interfacial energy transfer to other lanthanides allows a redshift in emission for biological applications.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This allows deeper penetration than typically used 980 nm and 808 nm lasers.

Holmium-doped yttrium iron garnet (YIG) and yttrium lithium fluoride have applications in solid-state lasers, and Ho-YIG has applications in optical isolators and in microwave equipment (e.g., YIG spheres). Holmium lasers emit at 2.1 micrometres.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> They are used in medical, dental, and fiber-optical applications.<ref name="appl">Template:Cite book</ref> It is also being considered for usage in the enucleation of the prostate.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Since holmium can absorb nuclear fission-bred neutrons, it is used as a burnable poison to regulate nuclear reactors.<ref name="emsley225" /> It is used as a colorant for cubic zirconia, providing pink coloring,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and for glass, providing yellow-orange coloring.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In March 2017, IBM announced that they had developed a technique to store one bit of data on a single holmium atom set on a bed of magnesium oxide.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> With sufficient quantum and classical control techniques, holmium may be a good candidate to make quantum computers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Holmium is used in the medical field, particularly in laser surgery for procedures such as kidney stone removal and prostate treatment, due to its precision and minimal tissue damage.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Its isotope, holmium-166, is applied in targeted cancer therapies, especially for liver cancer,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and it also enhances MRI imaging as a contrast agent.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Biological role and precautionsEdit

Holmium plays no biological role in humans, but its salts are able to stimulate metabolism.<ref name="CRC">Template:Cite book</ref> Humans typically consume about a milligram of holmium a year. Plants do not readily take up holmium from the soil. Some vegetables have had their holmium content measured, and it amounted to 100 parts per trillion.<ref name="emsley224">Template:Cite book</ref> Holmium and its soluble salts are slightly toxic if ingested, but insoluble holmium salts are nontoxic. Metallic holmium in dust form presents a fire and explosion hazard.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Large amounts of holmium salts can cause severe damage if inhaled, consumed orally, or injected. The biological effects of holmium over a long period of time are not known. Holmium has a low level of acute toxicity.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>