Lacquerware
Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with lacquer. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of small objects carried by people, and larger objects such as furniture and even coffins painted with lacquer. Before lacquering, the surface is sometimes painted with pictures, inlaid with shell and other materials, or carved. The lacquer can be dusted with gold or silver for example Hirameji and given further decorative treatments.
East Asian countries have long traditions of lacquer work, origin of lacquer is from china. going back several thousand years in the cases of China, Japan and Korea. The best known lacquer, an urushiol-based lacquer common in East Asia, is obtained from the dried sap of Toxicodendron vernicifluum. Other types of lacquers are processed from a variety of plants and insects. The traditions of lacquer work in Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Americas are also ancient and originated independently. True lacquer is not made outside Asia, but some imitations, such as Japanning in Europe, or parallel techniques, are often loosely referred to a "lacquer."
East AsiaEdit
Template:Multiple image The oldest lacquer tree found is from the Jōmon period in Japan, 12600 years ago.<ref name=webb/><ref name = "nikkei1106"/> The oldest lacquerware in the world, burial ornaments which were created in 9th millennium B.C., were unearthed in early Jomon period tombs, at the Kakinoshima site in Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name = "kakinoshima"/><ref name = "kakinoshimaj"/><ref name = "nikkei1106"/> Various prehistoric lacquerwares have been unearthed in China dating back to the Neolithic period and objects. The earliest known lacquerware in China is thought to be a red wooden bowl, which was unearthed at a Hemudu culture (Template:Circa) site in Zhejiang, China.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref> Template:Cite book</ref><ref> Template:Cite book</ref>
Chinese lacquerwareEdit
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During the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BC) of China, sophisticated lacquer process techniques developed became a highly artistic craft.<ref name=webb>Template:Cite book</ref>
During the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC), lacquerware began appearing in large quantity. This is the earliest era from which notable quantities of lacquerware have survived,<ref> Template:Cite book</ref> with states, later kingdoms, of Qin and Chu producing the largest number of lacquerware. The state of Chu having the geographical advantage and warmer climates enabled dedicated mass cultivation of lacquer trees and for lacquerware to become a commercial industry.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Because of this, Chu-state became famous for its lacquerware exports in the neighbouring states in the Zhou kingdom, with literary references found in books like Zhuangzi and Shangshu, and providing some cultural cross-pollination between the southern culture of Chu and the culture of Zhongyuan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
At the time of the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), special administrations were established to organize and divide labor for the expanding lacquer production in China.<ref name=hangguo> Template:Cite book</ref> Elaborate incised decorations were used in lacquerware during the Han dynasty.<ref name=met/>
In the Tang dynasty (618–907), Chinese lacquerware saw a new style marked by the use of sheets of gold or silver made in various shapes, such as birds, animals, and flowers.<ref name=hangguo/> The cut-outs were affixed onto the surface of the lacquerware, after which new layers of lacquer were applied, dried, and then ground away, so the surface could be polished to reveal the golden or silvery patterns beneath.<ref name=hangguo/> This was done by a technique known as pingtuo.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Such techniques were time-consuming and costly, but these lacquerware were considered highly refined.<ref name=hangguo/> It was also the period when the earliest practice of carving lacquerware began.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The art of inlaid gold, silver, and mother-of-pearl continued from the Tang into the Song dynasty (960–1279).<ref name=wf-23>Template:Cite book</ref> Several existing decorative techniques gradually developed further after the 10th century, such as diaoqi (carved lacquer) which involves building up layers comprising thinly-applied coats of lacquer and carving it into a three-dimensional design; qiangjin (engraved gold) in which fine lines are incised, an adhesive of lacquer is applied, and gold foil or powder is pressed into the grooves; and diaotian or tianqi (filled-in) in which the lacquer is inlaid with lacquer of another color.<ref name=met/> A variation of diaotian or tianqi is known as moxian (polish-reveal) in which a design is built up with lacquer in certain areas, the remaining areas are filled with lacquer of a different color, and the entire surface is polished down.<ref name=met/> Especially the art of inlaying lacquer with mother-of-pearl was intensively developed during the Song dynasty.<ref name=met>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=wf-23/> However, during the Song, the artistic craft also made use of inlaid gold in a process of which is to engrave intricate patterns in the lacquer surface and to fill the intaglio with gold powder.<ref name=hangguo/>
The knowledge of the Chinese methods of the lacquer process spread from China during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties,<ref name=foreign/> eventually it was introduced to Korea, Japan.<ref name=foreign>Template:Cite book</ref> In Japan, the art of lacquerware-making came along with Buddhism and other cultural artifacts from China via the Korean Peninsula during the 8th century,<ref name=ccl/> and carved lacquerware came to Japan from Ming dynasty China during the 14th century.<ref name=ccl>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> One of the earliest Japanese techniques for decorating the lacquer surface was, besides painting simple designs, the gold and silver foil inlay of the Nara period (710–784). This technique was transmitted from China during the Tang dynasty.<ref name=met/>
Coromandel lacquer is a Chinese export type, so called because it was shipped to European markets via the Coromandel coast of India.
GalleryEdit
- Red lacquered bowl from the Hemudu culture(Neolithic) in Zhejiang Museum.JPG
Red lacquer wood bowl from the Chinese Hemudu culture dated to 4000–5000 BC, the oldest such piece ever found.
- Accompanying Coffin, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (10166279464).jpg
Coffin from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
- 20230208 Painted lacquer lidded dou-bowl carved wirh dragons.jpg
Lacquer dou-vessel from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
- Warring States Lacquer Box (10336758635).jpg
Lacquerware box, Warring States period
- Painted Lacquered Wood Mandarin Duck-shaped Case (10166864494).jpg
Painted Lacquered Wood Mandarin Duck-shaped Case, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
- Lacquered Shield, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (10170326594).jpg
Lacquered Shield, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
- Warring States Lacquered Figure, Chu State (10162601104).jpg
Template:Transliteration (羽人) figure]] on a toad stand, Chu kingdom, Warring States period.
- 20230208 Painted lacquer box in the shape of two rear-to-rear pigs.jpg
Lacquer box in shape of pigs, Chu kingdom, Warring States.
- Lacquerware from State of Ch'u.jpg
Lacquerware box from the Jingmen Tomb (Template:Zh) of the State of Chu (704–223 BC)
- 彩漆木雕小座屏，2014-04-06 05.jpg
Openwork lacquered screen with animal designs, Warring States period
- 朱雀攫蛇漆豆AM.jpg
Zhuque Template:Transliteration-vessel, State of Chu Warring States,
- 20230208 Painted lacquer square hu-jar with dragon-shaped handles.jpg
Painted lacquer Template:Transliteration-jar with dragon-shaped handles, Warring States period
- Lacquer box of phoenix pattern, Warring States, Zaoyang, Hubei, Hubei Museum.jpg
Lacquer box of phoenix pattern, Warring States.
- 20230208 Painted lacquer flat flask with coiled serpents.jpg
Painted lacquer flat flask with coiled serpents, Warring States.
- MET DP100674.jpg
Lacquered winged goblet (zh:羽觞), also known as "eared" or flanged cup (耳杯) from Warring States.
- Lacquer bowls of cloud design, Warring States, Jiangling, Hubei, Jingzhou Museum.jpg
Lacquered flanged cup with cloud designs from Warring States.
- Warring States Lacquer Eared Cup (10336760735).jpg
Lacquered winged cup from Warring States with geometric design.
- Warring States Lacquered Cup, Chu State (10162831913).jpg
Lacquer phoenix cup, state of Chu, Warring States.
- 20230208 Painted lacquer spouted cup with phoenixes.jpg
- Qin lacquer box.JPG
Lacquer box incised with "Panyu" in seal script, from the Qin dynasty
- Qin-Han Lacquered Erbei (Eared Cup) (10163790226).jpg
"Eared" or flanged cup (耳杯), Qin or Han dynasty
- Qin-Han Lacquered Pot (10163478874).jpg
Lacquered flask, Qin or Han dynasty
- Qin-Han Lacquered Case (10163588574).jpg
Pig-shaped lacquered case, Qin or Han dynasty
- Mawangdui lacquerwares and tray.jpg
Han dynasty lacquerware unearthed at Mawangdui, 2nd century BC
- Mawangdui Han Lacquerware (10112576245).jpg
Lacquerware box from Mawangdui, Han dynasty.
- Mawangdui Han Lacquerware Screen (10112606213).jpg
Lacquerware screen, Han dynasty
- Qin-Han Lacquered Plate (10163532664).jpg
Lacquer dish, Han dynasty
- Western Han Inkstone & Lacquer Case (9831993673).jpg
Inkstone and lacquer case, Western Han dynasty
- Lacquer flat plate with Cloud-dragon design and the words Marquis Dai's Household, Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan, Hunan Museum, picture2.jpg
Lacquer dish with cloud-dragon design, Han dynasty
- Lacquer Wine-Cup Container.jpg
Lacquer Wine-Cup Container and wine cup set, Han dynasty
- Western Han Lacquered Eared Cup of Prince Tian Chang (9979164306).jpg
Western Han dynasty Lacquered flanged cup, known as winged goblet (zh:羽觞) or "eared cup"(耳杯) of Prince of Tianchang
- Han Painted Pottery Eared Cups (11867425585).jpg
Lacquered pottery flanged or eared cup, Han dynasty
- Qin-Han Lacquered Erbei (Eared Cup) (10163662184).jpg
Lacquered flanged cup, known as winged goblet (zh:羽觞), Han dynasty
- 西漢 黑地朱繪雲氣紋漆碗-Bowl with Geometric Designs MET DP355715.jpg
Western Han dynasty lacquer bowl
- Lacquer flanged cups and dishes.jpg
Lacquer flanged cups and dishes from Mawangdui, Han dynasty
- Western Han Lacquered An (Table) (9979165496).jpg
Lacquered table, Western Han dynasty
- Kunming Oct 2007 044.jpg
Lacquerware in the shape of a man's head, Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD), Yunnan Provincial Museum, Kunming
- 彩绘龙纹漆奁.jpg
Lacquer dressing case painted with dragon pattern, Han dynasty
- Qin-Han Lacquered Case (10163765166).jpg
Lacquered case, Han dynasty
- Lacquer Coffin Unearthed from the 2nd-century-BC Han Tomb No.1 at Mawangdui 2011-07.JPG
Lacquerware coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty
- Mawangdui Han Second Coffin from Tomb -1 (10113019345).jpg
Second coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty
- Mawangdui Han Third Coffin from Tomb -1 (10113109063).jpg
Third coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty
- Lidded Cosmetic Box (Lian) with Scrolling Clouds and Supernatural Creatures LACMA AC1997.50.1.1-.2.jpg
Lidded cosmetic box, Western Han dynasty, about 100 BC – 25 AD
- Mawangdui Han Lacquerware (10112520884).jpg
Lacquerware pot from Mawangdui Tomb.
- Small Round Lidded Cosmetic Box (Lian) with Scrolling Clouds and Birds LACMA M.2001.32.3a-b.jpg
Lacquered cosmetic box, Han dynasty
- Lacquered Wooden Screen Reconstruction (9966944775).jpg
Lacquerware screen of Prince of Nanyue (reconstruction), Han dynasty
- Oval Lidded Cosmetic Box (Duoyuan He) with Scrolling Clouds, Animals, and Birds LACMA M.2001.32.1a-b.jpg
Oval Lidded Cosmetic Box (Duoyuan He) with Scrolling Clouds, Animals, and Birds, Han dynasty
- Mawangdui Han Lacquerware (10112474374).jpg
Lacquered chest from Mawangdui.
- Lacquer from han dynasty mawangdui.jpg
Lacquerware flanged drinking vessels and plates from the Mawangdui Tomb.
- Basket from Lo-lang.jpg
Chinese painted artwork on the lacquered basket of Lolang, a region of the Han dynasty.
- Qin-Han Lacquered Zun (10163965493).jpg
Lacquered Template:Transliteration, Han dynasty
- Painted Iacquer dish unearthed from the tomb of Zhuran 01 2012-05.JPG
Painted lacquerware dish from the tomb of Zhu Ran (182–249 AD) in Anhui province, showing figures wearing Hanfu, Eastern Wu, Three Kingdoms period.
- Painted Iacquer narrow table unearthed from the tomb of Zhuran 2012-05.JPG
Painted lacquerware tray from the tomb of Zhu Ran, Three Kingdoms period.
- Geta Unearthed from the Tomb of Zhu Ran 2012-05.JPG
Black lacquered clogs from the tomb of Zhu Ran.
- Painted Iacquer dish unearthed from the tomb of Zhuran 02 2012-05.JPG
Painted lacquerware dish from the tomb of Zhu Ran, Three Kingdoms period.
- Mirror with phoenixes, birds, and flowers - Google Art Project.jpg
Lacquered mirror with bronze and silver inlays, Tang dynasty
- Tang Mirror (50616050688).jpg
Black lacquered mirror back with four phoenixes, Tang dynasty
- China, Tang dynasty (618-907) - Song dynasty - Inlays for a Mirror or Box - 1969.78 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif
Lacquer mirror box with inlays for a Mirror, Tang - Song dynasty
- Bowl (Wan) in the Form of a Flower Blossom LACMA AC1994.208.1.jpg
Bowl in shape of a flower blossom, Song dynasty
- Cup (Bei) with Sword-Pommel Pattern LACMA M.90.70.2.jpg
Cup with Sword-Pommel Pattern, Song dynasty
- 南宋 黑面剔犀劍環紋漆盒-Box with Pommel Scroll Design MET DP355771.jpg
Box with Pommel Scroll design, Song dynasty
- 'Abbot' by Liu Yun, dry lacquer, dated 1099, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG
Lacquered Buddhist abbot, Song dynasty
- 南宋 黑漆葵瓣盞（一對）-Pair of Plum-Blossom-Shaped Cups MET DP360355.jpg
Black lacquered plum-blossom-shaped cup, Song dynasty
- Chest (Xiang) LACMA M.78.121.2.jpg
Black lacquer on wood core with wickerwork panels, Song dynasty
- Tablescreen with Calligraphy of Sima Guang's (1019-1086) Family Instructions LACMA M.2000.191.jpg
Tablescreen with Calligraphy of Sima Guang's Family Instructions, Song dynasty
- Tray (Pan) in the Form of a Plum Blossom with Birds and Flowers LACMA M.86.330 (1 of 2).jpg
Pan in the Form of a Plum Blossom with Birds and Flowers, Late Song dynasty
- 黑漆嵌螺钿人物图盒.jpg
Black lacquered box with painted figures, Late Song dynasty
- WLA haa Table Yuan Dynasty.jpg
A lacquered table of the Yuan dynasty, 14th century, with an inlaid mother-of-pearl decoration of a tree
- Rectangular Box (Changfang He) with Sword-Pommel Pattern LACMA M.84.121.1a-b.jpg
Carved lacquer box with the "Sword-Pommel Pattern", Yuan dynasty (1279–1368)
- MET DP135209.jpg
Black lacquer box with pearl inlays, late Yuan to early Ming dynasty.
- 明初 剔紅庭園高士圖漆盤-Dish with garden scene MET DP256068 (cropped).jpg
Lacquer Dish with garden scene, Early Ming dynasty
- Box with two phoenix birds and chrysanthemums, China, Ming dynasty, Yongle period, 1403-1424 AD, lacquer - Östasiatiska museet, Stockholm - DSC09540.JPG
Box, Ming dynasty, Yongle era (1403–1424)
- 明中期 剔犀劍環紋漆盒-Box with pommel scroll design MET DP704136.jpg
Lacquer Box with pommel scroll design, Ming dynasty
- MET DP704124.jpg
Octagonal food box with pommel scrolls, Ming dynasty
- Stemmed Cup (Gaozu Bei) with Sword-Pommel Pattern LACMA M.79.89.1.jpg
Carved lacquer stem cup with the "Sword-Pommel Pattern", mid-Ming dynasty
- 龙纹花瓣形雕漆盒 1520.jpg
Lacquer box with dragon motifs and inlays, Ming dynasty
- Covered box with dragon, China, Ming dynasty, Jiajing era, 1522-1566 AD, carved lacquer - Tokyo National Museum - Tokyo, Japan - DSC08303.jpg
Covered box with dragon motif, Ming dynassty, Jiajing era, 1522-1566 AD
- Seal Paste Box (Yinnihe) with Litchi Stems LACMA M.87.205a-b (1 of 2).jpg
Carved red lacquer on wood core, Ming dynasty
- 朱漆描金百宝嵌庭院人物故事顶箱柜07587.jpg
Red Lacquer Wardrobes Inlaid with Various Treasures, Ming dynasty
- 万历款填漆戗金云龙纹立柜.jpg
Lacquer cabinet with dragon and cloud motifs, from Wanli era, Ming dynasty
- Dragon on 万历款填漆戗金云龙纹立柜.jpg
Detail of lacquer cabinet with dragon and cloud motifs, Ming dynasty
- 黑漆描金龙纹方角药柜07566.jpg
Black lacquered medicine cabinet with dragon patterns from Wanli era, Ming dynasty.
- Rectangular tray with dragons and pearl, China, Ming dynasty, dated 1623 AD, wood with lacquer - Linden-Museum - Stuttgart, Germany - DSC03517.jpg
Tray with dragons, Ming dynasty.
- 明晚期 嵌螺鈿漆花鳥紋座屏-Table screen MET DP-14362-001.jpg
Lacquer table-screen
- Late Ming-Early Qing Lacquered Case (9979458956).jpg
Late Ming - Early Qing dynasty lacquered Case
- Square Dish (Die) with Figure on Horse LACMA M.39.2.569.1.jpg
Square dish, Qing dynasty, Kangxi era (1662–1722)
- Cup with a poem composed by the Emperor Qianlong, China, Qing dynasty, 1736-1795, wood base, red and green lacquer - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC03964.JPG
Carved lacquer cup with a poem composed by the Qianlong Emperor (1735–1796), Qing dynasty
- Dinastia qing, vaso a doppia zucca in lacca intagliata, con otto emblemi buddisti, 1800-50 ca.jpg
Carved lacquer calabash-bottle, Qing dynasty
- Qing Lacquered Scripture Box (10152135216).jpg
Lacquered Scripture Box, Qing dynasty
- Cina, paravento in stile coromandel, lacca, madreperla, tartaruga e oro, 1750-1800 ca. 01.jpg
Coromandel lacquer folding screen with a courtly progress in lacquer, mother of pearl, tortoiseshell and gold, Qing dynasty, 1750–1800
- Qing Ruyi.jpg
Carved lacquer ruyi, Qing dynasty
- Bruxelles Lit Qing 02 10 2011.jpg
Lacquer canopy bed, Qing dynasty
- MBAM 2009.84, Chinese canopy bed.JPG
Lacquer canopy bed, Qing dynasty
- Qing Red Lacquer Furniture.jpg
Lacquer table and chairs, Qing dynasty
- Lacquered armor of the Dali Kingdom.jpg
Lacquered armor of the Dali Kingdom
- Qing Lacquered Box.jpg
Qing dynasty Lacquered Box
- Qing Woven Bamboo Lacquer Fruit Case (9979373444).jpg
Woven Bamboo Lacquer Fruit Case, Qing dynasty
- Qing Lacquered Box - 1.jpg
Qing dynasty Lacquered Box
- Snuff bottle, 19th century, carved lacquer, Dayton Art Institute.JPG
Qing dynasty carved lacquer snuff bottle.
- Lacquered Furniture (10114201366).jpg
Carved lacquer chair, Qing dynasty
- Yi lacquerware.jpg
Lacquerware set by the Yi people.
Korean lacquerwareEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
The very term 'Najeonchilgi' is a combination of two particular words: 'najeon'– mother-of-pearl and ‘chilgi’ which refers to lacquerware. ‘najeon’ refers to the composite material which forms the inner shiny shell layer. The Three Kingdom period (57 B.C. – 668 A.D.) witnessed the introduction of the first method and the second one was introduced during the Shilla period (668–935 A.D.). The Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), considered the golden period of this craft, was influenced by Buddhism.
Japanese lacquerwareEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
The term for lacquer is urushi (漆), source of the English hybrid word "urushiol". Etymologically, urushi may be related to the words uruwashii ("beautiful") or uruoi ("watered", "profitable", "favored"), due speculatively to their value or shiny appearance, or perhaps the humidifying rooms used in production of lacquered wares. The term "Japanning" in the 17th century is a term for the technique used by Europe to emulate Asian lacquer, derived from the then famous Japanese lacquer.
The general characteristic of Japanese lacquerware is the widespread use of various Maki-e techniques compared to other countries. As a result, there are many works in which relatively vivid gold and silver patterns and pictures shine on the black base of lacquerware, and the entire lacquerware is covered with shiny gold and silver grains.<ref name = "murata24"/>
History and regional productionEdit
Primitive lacquer was used in Japan as early as 12,600 BC, during the Jōmon period.<ref name = "nikkei1106">1万2千年前のウルシ木片 世界最古、福井で出土, The Nikkei, November 6, 2011</ref>
Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in Hokkaido.<ref>Hokkaido's Minamikayabe Town, Kakinoshima site B (北海道の南茅部町の垣ノ島B遺跡)</ref> These objects were discovered in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period (approx. 9,000 years ago)<ref name = "nikkei1106"/><ref name = "kakinoshima">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name = "kakinoshimaj">Kakinoshima Excavation Site Hokkaido Government</ref> Japanese lacquering technology may have been invented by the Jōmon. They learned to refine urushi (poison oak sap) – the process taking several months. Iron oxide (colcothar) and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) were used for producing red lacquer.<ref name=autogenerated1>Jomon crafts and what they were for heritageofjapan.wordpress.com</ref> Lacquer was used both on pottery, and on different types of wooden items. In some cases, burial clothes for the dead were also lacquered.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Many lacquered objects have turned up during the Early Jōmon period; this indicates that this was an established part of Jōmon culture.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Experts are divided on whether Jōmon lacquer was derived from Chinese techniques, or invented independently. For example, Mark Hudson believes that “Jomon lacquer technology was developed independently in Japan rather than being introduced from China as once believed”.<ref>Sannai Maruyama: A New View of Prehistoric Japan, Mark Hudson, Asia-Pacific Magazine, No. 2 May 1996 pp. 47–48.</ref><ref name=autogenerated1 />
During the Asuka and Nara periods, between the 7th and 8th centuries, Chinese lacquer art forms were imported to Japan.
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In the Heian period (794–1185), various Maki-e techniques characteristic of Japanese lacquerware were developed. While the method of drawing designs with a brush by dissolving gold powder in lacquer is a common technique in other countries, the method of drawing designs with lacquer and then sprinkling gold, silver, or copper powder of various sizes and shapes on top to polish them was developed in Japan. This made it possible to make the gold and silver of lacquerware brighter than before.<ref name = "murata24">Masayuki Murata. 明治工芸入門 p. 24. Me no Me, 2017 Template:ISBN</ref>
In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), carved lacquer from the Song dynasty of China was imported to Japan. However, many Japanese lacquer craftsmen did not adopt the Chinese method of depositing lacquer and then carving it; instead, they created Kamakurabori, a method of carving wood and then coating lacquer.<ref>Carved lacquer and Lacquered sculpture Kanagawa Prefectural Museum of Cultural History</ref>
Japanese lacquerware was abundantly exported to China where the Ming and Qing rulers generally described Japanese lacquerwares as " foreign lacquer " ( yangqi ). Yang Ming, and famous lacquer man Zhejiang, made annotations for A Record of Decoration with Lacquer, ... People of the Ming dynasty once recorded: “The decoration art with lacquer coated with gold originated (maki-e) from Japan". Yang in the reign of Xuande of the Ming dynasty made a trip to Japan to study Japanese techniques, and a Japanese visited a Chinese imperial workshop in Beijing during the Ming dynasty. It is well documented that the Yongzheng Emperor had a formidable interest in Japanese lacquer, yangqi, and this was reflected in many of the works produced in the Imperial workshops during his reign.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568–1600) also made its way into Colonial Mexico (Manila Galleons) and Europe by Nanban trade. Japanese lacquerware attracted European aristocrats and missionaries from Europe, and western style chests and church furniture were exported in response to their requests.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Urushi once attracted the world urushi-joboji.com</ref>
The Edo period (1603–1868) saw an increase in the focused cultivation of lacquer trees and the development of the techniques used. In the 18th century colored lacquers came into wider use. With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. From the middle of the Edo period, inro became popular as men's accessories, and wealthy merchants of the chōnin class and samurai class collected inro of high aesthetic value, precisely designed with lacquer.<ref name = "murata104">Masayuki Murata. 明治工芸入門 p. 104. Me no Me, 2017 Template:ISBN</ref><ref name = "saimitsu104">Yūji Yamashita. 明治の細密工芸 p. 80. Heibonsha, 2014 Template:ISBN</ref> Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known collectors of Japanese lacquerware and their collections are now often exhibited in the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles.<ref name = "murata24"/>
In the Meiji period (1868–1912), Richly-decorated lacquerwares in original designs were popular domestically, and even more so with Western buyers during this period of European and American fascination with Japanese art. Shibata Zeshin's lacquer work was especially popular.Template:Sfn In addition, lacquerware called Shibayama, which was created in the Edo period, became popular for its showy style, inlaid with gold, silver, shellfish, ivory, coral, tortoise shell and ceramics, and reached its peak during this period. Lacquerware called Somada, which was created in the Edo period and characterized by regular patterns of finely cut seashells, gold leaf and silver leaf, also became popular during this period.<ref name = "saimitsu60">Yūji Yamashita. 明治の細密工芸 pp. 60–61. Heibonsha, 2014 Template:ISBN</ref> The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japan's lacquers and other decorative arts at a succession of world's fairs.Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognised as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world.Template:Sfn
Today, the Japanese government has designated excellent lacquer artists as Living National Treasures and is encouraging them to make lacquerware. Lacquerware is produced throughout the Japanese archipelago, with many regional techniques and variations. Besides the very old Kamakura tradition mentioned above (and still alive today), the port town of Wajima provides a good example of regional lacquerware. Wajima-nuri, dating back to the 16th century, is characterized by use of the elm-like Japanese zelkova (keyaki 欅), powdered earth, and delicate features formed from cloth. (See the Japanese article, 輪島塗. A more complete list of regional lacquer traditions is available in the Japanese article.)
- Tiered Stand with Designs Alluding to The Tale of Genji.jpg
Tiered Stand with Designs Alluding to The Tale of Genji, by Hon'ami Kōetsu, 17th century
- Reading Stand with Mount Yoshino.jpg
Reading Stand with Mount Yoshino, Edo period, 18th century
- Blade and Mounting for a Short Sword (Wakizashi).jpg
Lacquered exterior of wakizashi Fusamune, Edo period, 18th century
- 'Fuji Tagonoura', 'maki-e' picture by Shibata Zeshin, 1872.jpg
Maki-e Fuji Tagonoura, by Shibata Zeshin, Meiji period, 1872
- Khalili Collection Japanese Meiji Art L160.jpg
Maki-e Writing-table, by Shirayama Shosai, Meiji period, 19th century, Khalili Collection of Japanese Art
- 松田権六 蒔絵螺鈿有職文飾箱.jpg
by Living National Treasure Gonroku Matsuda, Showa period, 1960
Ryukyuan lacquerwareEdit
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Ryukyuan lacquerware is one of the chief artistic products of the Ryukyu Islands (today Okinawa Prefecture of Japan); it is quite distinct from the lacquerware found among the surrounding cultures. Nevertheless, Chinese and Japanese influences are present.
Southeast AsiaEdit
Burmese lacquerwareEdit
Yun-de is lacquerware in Burmese, and the art is called Pan yun ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). The lacquer is the sap tapped from the varnish tree or Thitsee (Gluta usitata, syn. Melanorrhoea usitata) that grows wild in the forests of Myanmar (formerly Burma).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is straw-colored but turns black on exposure to air. When brushed in or coated on, it forms a hard glossy smooth surface resistant to a degree from the effects of exposure to moisture or heat.
HistoryEdit
The earliest fragments of lacquerware basketry found in Bagan dates back to the 13th century. Evidence for older lacquerware in Bagan remains inconclusive.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Bayinnaung's conquest and subjugation in 1555–1562 of Manipur, Bhamo, Zinme (Chiang Mai), Linzin (Lan Xang), and up the Taping and Shweli rivers in the direction of Yunnan brought back large numbers of skilled craftsmen into Burma. It is thought that the finer sort of Burmese lacquerware, called Yun, was introduced during this period by imported artisans belonging to the Yun or Northern Thai people of the Chiang Mai region.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref>
Manufacture and designEdit
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Lacquer vessels, boxes and trays have a coiled or woven bamboo-strip base often mixed with horsehair. The thitsee may be mixed with ashes or sawdust to form a putty-like substance called thayo which can be sculpted. The object is coated layer upon layer with thitsee and thayo to make a smooth surface, polished and engraved with intricate designs, commonly using red, green and yellow colors on a red or black background. Shwezawa is a distinctive form in its use of gold leaf to fill in the designs on a black background.<ref name="Blurton">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="ao">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Palace scenes, scenes from the Jataka tales, and the signs of the Burmese Zodiac are popular designs and some vessels may be encrusted with glass mosaic or semi-precious stones in gold relief.<ref name="ao"/> The objects are all handmade and the designs and engraving done free-hand. It may take three to four months to finish a small vessel but perhaps over a year for a larger piece. The finished product is a result of teamwork and not crafted by a single person.<ref name="Blurton"/>
FormsEdit
The most distinctive vessel is probably a rice bowl on a stem with a spired lid for monks called hsun ok. Lahpet ok is a shallow dish with a lid and has a number of compartments for serving lahpet (pickled tea) with its various accompaniments. Stackable tiffin carriers fastened with a single handle or hsun gyaink are usually plain red or black. Daunglan are low tables for meals and may be simple broad based or have three curved feet in animal or floral designs with a lid. Water carafes or yeidagaung with a cup doubling as a lid, and vases are also among lacquerware still in use in many monasteries.<ref name="Blurton"/><ref name="ao"/>
Various round boxes with lids, small and large, are known as yun-it including ones for paan called kun-it (Template:Langx; betel boxes). Yun titta are rectangular boxes for storing various articles including peisa or palm leaf manuscripts when they are called sadaik titta. Pedestal dishes or small trays with a stem with or without a lid are known as kalat for serving delicacies or offering flowers to royalty or the Buddha. Theatrical troupes and musicians have their lacquerware in costumes, masks, head-dresses, and musical instruments, some of them stored and carried in lacquer trunks.<ref name="ao"/> Boxes in the shape of a pumpkin or a bird such as the owl, which is believed to bring luck, or the hintha (Brahminy duck) are common too. Screens and small polygonal tables are also made for the tourist trade today.
IndustryEdit
Bagan is the major centre for the lacquerware industry where the handicraft has been established for nearly two centuries, and still practiced in the traditional manner. Here a government school of lacquerware was founded in the 1920s. Since plastics, porcelain and metal have superseded lacquer in most everyday utensils, it is today manufactured in large workshops mainly for tourists who come to see the ancient temples of Bagan. At the village of Kyaukka near Monywa in the Chindwin valley, however, sturdy lacquer utensils are still produced for everyday use mainly in plain black.<ref name="Blurton"/>
A decline in the number of visitors combined with the cost of resin, which has seen a 40-fold rise in 15 years, has led to the closure of over two-thirds of more than 200 lacquerware workshops in Bagan.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Vietnamese lacquer painting and lacquerwareEdit
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Sơn mài is a painting technique in Vietnam. It developed from the painters of the Hanoi EBAI in the 1930s and today is counted a national painting style with many famous painters.
In 1924 the Ecole des Beaux Arts was established in Hanoi. This institution was to be the birthplace of the revitalised art of lacquer painting. In 1934 the school opened its lacquer department and it was from here that well known contributors to the art including; Bui Trang Chuoc, Nguyen Van Binh, Nguyen Khang, Nguyen Duc Nung, Nguyen Tien Chung, and Pham Van Don would emerge.
It was the first generation of Vietnamese students of the Indochina School of Fine Art during the 1930s, who elevated the craft of lacquer painting to a truly fine art. Less interested in decor than their craftsmen predecessors, it was also these men who would begin a series of artistic innovations from which craftsmen producing purely utilitarian or decorative pieces would also benefit.
Creating images with crushed eggshell, painting pigment over gold and tin foil and adding sand to lacquer were all techniques developed by those first students. The metallic color lacquerware for which Vietnamese craftsmen are rightly famous, was first developed by artists experimenting with many innovative techniques.
After the reunification, the art of lacquerware was slowly dying out in Vietnam. But since the 1980s, the government has recognized it as a vital cultural and economic force and has encouraged the business community to invest in the craft. As a result, we see a resurgence of lacquerware and a proliferation of lacquerware products from Vietnam.
South AsiaEdit
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In India, the insect lac or shellac was used since ancient times. Shellac is the secretion of the lac bug (Tachardia lacca Kerr. or Laccifer lacca). It is used for wood finish, lacquerware, skin cosmetic, ornaments, dye for textiles, production of different grades of shellac for surface coating.<ref name=FAO1995Ch5>Template:Cite book</ref> The Atharvaveda text 1200 BCE – 1000 BCE devotes a chapter to 'lākshā' and its various uses.<ref>Elements of Entomology (2007), Page 492, Dr. Rajendra Singh. Rastogi Publications.</ref>
AmericasEdit
Barniz de Pasto techniqueEdit
Barniz de Pasto (es) is a lacquer-like varnish technique originating in the Pre-Columbian era that is a specialty of Pasto, Colombia. It is made by chewing the resin of the Andean mopa-mopa shrub (Elaeagia pastoensis) into thin layers, and then painting it and applying it to a wood, metal, clay or glass surface using heated stones.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Historically, the technique was applied to wooden keros, drinking vessels.
Mexican lacquerwareEdit
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Known in Mexican Spanish as laca or maque (from Japanese maki-e<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Self-published inline), Mexican lacquer has independent origins from Asian lacquer. In the pre-Hispanic period, a substance from the larvae of aje scale insects and/or oil from the chia seed were mixed with powdered minerals to create protective coatings and decorative designs. During this period, the process was almost always applied to dried gourds, especially to make the cups that Mesoamerican nobility drank chocolate from.
After the Conquest, the Spanish had indigenous craftsmen apply the technique to European style furniture and other items, changing the decorative motifs and color schemes, but the process and materials remained mostly the same. Asian lacquerware and artisans brought by the Nao de China also had an influence on the style and motifs of colonial Mexican lacquerware. Today, workshops creating lacquerware are limited to Olinalá, Temalacatzingo and Acapetlahuaya in the state of Guerrero, Uruapan and Pátzcuaro in Michoacán and Chiapa de Corzo in Chiapas. The most popular modern lacquerware are small boxes, sometimes known as cajitas de Olinalá.
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
Further readingEdit
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External linksEdit
- "Lacquerware Stories" Template:Webarchive at the Kyoto National Museum.
- Museum of Lacquer Art Münster Museum für Lackkunst in Germany
- The Craft and Care of East Asian Lacquer by Denver Art Museum
- Bone, Flesh, Skin: the making of Japanese Lacquer YouTube video by Getty Museum
- Intro to Urushi YouTube video by Dr.Kenji Toki at FabLabKamakura
- Lacquerware of East Asia essay at the MET Museum