Template:Short description Template:Redirect Template:Good article Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox writer Adam Bernard MickiewiczTemplate:Efn (24 December 1798Template:Spaced ndash26 November 1855) was a Polish poet, dramatist, essayist, publicist, translator and political activist. He is regarded as national poet in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. He also largely influenced Ukrainian literature.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> A principal figure in Polish Romanticism, he is one of Poland's "Three Bards" (Template:Langx)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and is widely regarded as Poland's greatest poet.<ref name="mickiewicz" /><ref name="mickiewicz1" /><ref name="Cornis-PopeNeubauer2010" /> He is also considered one of the greatest Slavic<ref name="PomorskaBaran1992" /> and European<ref name="budowniczowie"/> poets and has been dubbed a "Slavic bard".<ref name="fra"/> A leading Romantic dramatist,<ref name="tm"/> he has been compared in Poland and Europe to Byron and Goethe.<ref name=fra/><ref name=tm/>
He is known chiefly for the poetic drama Dziady (Forefathers' Eve) and the national epic poem Pan Tadeusz. His other influential works include Konrad Wallenrod and Grażyna. All these served as inspiration for uprisings against the three imperial powers that had partitioned the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth out of existence.
Mickiewicz was born in the Russian-partitioned territories of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which had been part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and was active in the struggle to win independence for his home region. After, as a consequence, spending five years exiled to central Russia, in 1829 he succeeded in leaving the Russian Empire and, like many of his compatriots, lived out the rest of his life abroad. He settled first in Rome, then in Paris, where for a little over three years he lectured on Slavic literature at the Collège de France. He was an activist, striving for a democratic and independent Poland. He died, probably of cholera, at Istanbul in the Ottoman Empire, where he had gone to help organize Polish forces to fight Russia in the Crimean War.
In 1890, his remains were repatriated from Montmorency, Val-d'Oise, in France, to Wawel Cathedral in Kraków, Poland.
LifeEdit
Early yearsEdit
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Adam Mickiewicz was born on 24 December 1798, either at his paternal uncle's estate in Zaosie (now Zavosse) near Navahrudak (in Polish, Nowogródek) or in Navahrudak itselfTemplate:Efn in what was then part of the Russian Empire and is now Belarus. The region was on the periphery of Lithuania proper and had been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the Third Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1795).<ref name=venc/><ref name="Yad Vashem Studies"/> Its upper class, including Mickiewicz's family, were either Polish or Polonized.<ref name=venc/> The poet's father, Mikołaj Mickiewicz, a lawyer, was a member of the Polish<ref name="vytautas"/> nobility (szlachta)<ref name="cze208"/> and bore the hereditary Poraj coat-of-arms;<ref name="Koropeckyj2008"/> Adam's mother was Barbara Mickiewicz, née Majewska. Adam was the second-born son in the family.<ref name="psb694"/>
Mickiewicz spent his childhood in Navahrudak,<ref name="cze208"/><ref name="psb694"/> initially taught by his mother and private tutors. From 1807 to 1815 he attended a Dominican school following a curriculum that had been designed by the now-defunct Polish Commission of National Education, which had been the world's first ministry of education.<ref name="cze208"/><ref name="psb694"/><ref name="Wulff1992"/> He was a mediocre student, although active in games, theatricals, and the like.<ref name="cze208"/>
In September 1815, Mickiewicz enrolled at the Imperial University of Vilnius, studying to be a teacher.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> After graduating, under the terms of his government scholarship, he taught secondary school at Kaunas from 1819 to 1823.<ref name="psb694"/>
In 1818, in the Polish-language Template:Interlanguage link (Wilno Weekly), he published his first poem, Template:Ill (City Winter).<ref name="psb695" /> The next few years would see a maturing of his style from sentimentalism/neoclassicism to romanticism, first in his poetry anthologies published in Vilnius in 1822 and 1823; these anthologies included the poem Grażyna and the first-published parts (II and IV) of his major work, Dziady (Forefathers' Eve).<ref name="psb695"/> By 1820 he had already finished another major romantic poem, Oda do młodości (Ode to Youth), but it was considered to be too patriotic and revolutionary for publication and would not appear officially for many years.<ref name="psb695"/>
About the summer of 1820, Mickiewicz met the love of his life, Template:Interlanguage link. They were unable to marry due to his family's poverty and relatively low social status; in addition, she was already engaged to Count Template:Interlanguage link, whom she would marry in 1821.<ref name="psb695"/><ref name="cze210"/>
Imprisonment and exileEdit
In 1817, while still a student, Mickiewicz, Tomasz Zan and other friends had created a secret organization, the Philomaths.<ref name="psb695"/> The group focused on self-education but had ties to a more radical, clearly pro-Polish-independence student group, the Filaret Association.<ref name="psb695"/> An investigation of secret student organizations by Nikolay Novosiltsev, begun in early 1823, led to the arrests of a number of students and ex-student activists including Mickiewicz, who was taken into custody and imprisoned at Vilnius' Basilian Monastery in late 1823 or early 1824 (sources disagree as to the date).<ref name="psb695"/> After investigation into his political activities, specifically his membership in the Philomaths, in 1824 Mickiewicz was banished to central Russia.<ref name="psb695"/> Within a few hours of receiving the decree on 22 October 1824, he penned a poem into an album belonging to Template:Ill, the mother of Juliusz Słowacki.<ref name="mickiewitch"/> (In 1975 this poem was set to music in Polish and Russian by Soviet composer David Tukhmanov.)<ref name="popsa"/> Mickiewicz crossed the border into Russia about 11 November 1824, arriving in Saint Petersburg later that month.<ref name="psb695"/> He would spend most of the next five years in Saint Petersburg and Moscow, except for a notable 1824 to 1825 excursion to Odessa, then on to Crimea.<ref name="cze218"/> That visit, from February to November 1825, inspired a notable collection of sonnets (some love sonnets, and a series known as Crimean Sonnets, published a year later).<ref name="psb695"/><ref name="cze218"/><ref name="psb696"/>
Mickiewicz was welcomed into the leading literary circles of Saint Petersburg and Moscow, where he became a great favourite for his agreeable manners and an extraordinary talent for poetic improvisation.<ref name="psb696"/> The year 1828 saw the publication of his poem Konrad Wallenrod.<ref name="psb696"/> Novosiltsev, who recognized its patriotic and subversive message, which had been missed by the Moscow censors, unsuccessfully attempted to sabotage its publication and to damage Mickiewicz's reputation.<ref name="Koropeckyj2008"/><ref name="psb696"/>
In Moscow, Mickiewicz met the Polish journalist and novelist Henryk Rzewuski and the Polish composer and piano virtuoso Maria Szymanowska, whose daughter, Celina Szymanowska, Mickiewicz would later marry in Paris, France. He also befriended the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin<ref name="psb696"/> and Decembrist leaders including Kondraty Ryleyev.<ref name="cze218"/> It was thanks to his friendships with many influential individuals that he was eventually able to obtain a passport and permission to leave Russia for Western Europe.<ref name="psb696"/>
European travelsEdit
After serving five years of exile to Russia, Mickiewicz received permission to go abroad in 1829. On 1 June that year, he arrived in Weimar in Germany.<ref name="psb696" /> By 6 June he was in Berlin, where he attended lectures by the philosopher Hegel.<ref name="psb696"/> In February 1830 he visited Prague, later returning to Weimar, where he received a cordial reception from the writer and polymath Goethe.<ref name="psb696"/>
He then continued on through Germany all the way to Italy, which he entered via the Alps' Splügen Pass.<ref name="psb696"/> Accompanied by an old friend, the poet Antoni Edward Odyniec, he visited Milan, Venice, Florence and Rome.<ref name="psb696"/><ref name="psb697"/> In August that same year (1830) he went to Geneva, where he met fellow Polish Bard Zygmunt Krasiński.<ref name="psb697"/> During these travels he had a brief romance with Template:Interlanguage link, but class differences again prevented his marrying his new love.<ref name="psb697"/>
Finally about October 1830 he took up residence in Rome, which he declared "the most amiable of foreign cities."<ref name="psb697"/> Soon after, he learned about the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising in Poland, but he would not leave Rome until the spring of 1831.<ref name="psb697"/>
On 19 April 1831 Mickiewicz departed Rome, traveling to Geneva and Paris and later, on a false passport, to Germany, via Dresden and Leipzig arriving about 13 August in Poznań (German name: Posen), then part of the Kingdom of Prussia.<ref name="psb697"/> It is possible that during these travels he carried communications from the Italian Carbonari to the French underground, and delivered documents or money for the Polish insurgents from the Polish community in Paris, but reliable information on his activities at the time is scarce.<ref name="psb697"/><ref name="cze222"/> Ultimately he never crossed into Russian Poland, where the Uprising was mainly happening; he stayed in German Poland (historically known to Poles as Wielkopolska, or Greater Poland), where he was well received by members of the local Polish nobility.<ref name="psb697"/> He had a brief liaison with Template:Ill at her family estate<ref name="psb697"/> in Śmiełów. Starting in March 1832, Mickiewicz stayed several months in Dresden, in Saxony,<ref name="psb697"/><ref name="psb698"/> where he wrote the third part of his poem Dziady.<ref name="psb698"/>
Paris émigréEdit
On 31 July 1832, Mickiewicz arrived in Paris, accompanied by a close friend and fellow ex-Philomath, the future geologist and Chilean educator Ignacy Domeyko.<ref name="psb698"/> In Paris, he became active in many Polish émigré groups and published articles in Template:Interlanguage link (The Polish Pilgrim).<ref name="psb698"/> The fall of 1832 saw the publication, in Paris, of the third part of his Dziady (smuggled into partitioned Poland), as well as of Template:Interlanguage link, which Mickiewicz self-published.<ref name="psb698"/> During this time, he made acquaintances with his compatriot the composer Frederic Chopin who would be one of Mickiewicz's closest friends in Paris. In 1834 he published another masterpiece, his epic poem Pan Tadeusz.<ref name="psb699"/>
Pan Tadeusz, his longest poetic work, marked the end of his most productive literary period.<ref name="psb699"/><ref name="cze227"/> Mickiewicz would create further notable works, such as Template:Interlanguage link, 1839–40) and Zdania i uwagi (Thoughts and Remarks, 1834–40), but neither would achieve the fame of his earlier works.<ref name="psb699"/> His relative literary silence, beginning in the mid-1830s, has been variously interpreted: he may have lost his talent; he may have chosen to focus on teaching and on political writing and organizing.<ref name="cze229"/>
On 22 July 1834, in Paris, he married Celina Szymanowska, daughter of composer and concert pianist Maria Agata Szymanowska.<ref name="psb699"/> They would have six children (two daughters, Template:Ill and Helena; and four sons, Template:Ill, Aleksander, Jan and Józef).<ref name="psb699"/> Celina later became mentally ill, possibly with a major depressive disorder.<ref name="psb699"/> In December 1838, marital problems caused Mickiewicz to attempt suicide.<ref name="Twórczość">Template:Cite book</ref> Celina would die on 5 March 1855.<ref name="psb699"/>
Mickiewicz and his family lived in relative poverty, their major source of income being occasional publication of his work – not a very profitable endeavor.<ref name="psb700"/> They received support from friends and patrons, but not enough to substantially change their situation.<ref name="psb700"/> Despite spending most of his remaining years in France, Mickiewicz would never receive French citizenship, nor any support from the French government.<ref name="psb700"/> By the late 1830s he was less active as a writer, and also less visible on the Polish émigré political scene.<ref name="psb699"/>
In 1838 Mickiewicz became professor of Latin literature at the Lausanne Academy, in Switzerland.<ref name="psb700"/> His lectures were well received, and in 1840 he was appointed to the newly established chair of Slavic languages and literatures at the Collège de France.<ref name="psb700"/><ref name="cze230"/> Leaving Lausanne, he was made an honorary Lausanne Academy professor.<ref name="psb700"/>
Mickiewicz would, however, hold the Collège de France post for little more than three years, his last lecture being delivered on 28 May 1844.<ref name="psb700"/> His lectures were popular, drawing many listeners in addition to enrolled students, and receiving reviews in the press.<ref name="psb700"/> Some would be remembered much later; his sixteenth lecture, on Slavic theater, "was to become a kind of gospel for Polish theater directors of the twentieth century."<ref name="cze223"/>
Over the years he became increasingly possessed by religious mysticism as he fell under the influence of the Polish philosopher Andrzej Towiański, whom he met in 1841.<ref name="psb700"/><ref name="psb701"/> His lectures became a medley of religion and politics, punctuated by controversial attacks on the Catholic Church, and thus brought him under censure by the French government.<ref name="psb700"/><ref name="psb701"/> The messianic element conflicted with Roman Catholic teachings, and some of his works were placed on the Church's list of prohibited books, though both Mickiewicz and Towiański regularly attended Catholic mass and encouraged their followers to do so.<ref name="psb701"/><ref name="Alvis2005"/>
In 1846 Mickiewicz severed his ties with Towiański, following the rise of revolutionary sentiment in Europe, manifested in events such as the Kraków Uprising of February 1846.<ref name="psb702"/> Mickiewicz criticized Towiański's passivity and returned to the traditional Catholic Church.<ref name="psb702"/> In 1847 Mickiewicz befriended American journalist, critic and women's-rights advocate Margaret Fuller.<ref name="psb703"/> In March 1848 he was part of a Polish delegation received in audience by Pope Pius IX, whom he asked to support the enslaved nations and the French Revolution of 1848.<ref name="psb702"/> Soon after, in April 1848, he organized a military unit, the Mickiewicz Legion, to support the insurgents, hoping to liberate the Polish and other Slavic lands.<ref name="cze230"/><ref name="psb702"/> The unit never became large enough to be more than symbolic, and in the fall of 1848 Mickiewicz returned to Paris and became more active again on the political scene.<ref name="psb703"/>
In December 1848 he was offered a post at the Jagiellonian University in Austrian-ruled Kraków, but the offer was soon withdrawn after pressure from Austrian authorities.<ref name="psb703"/> In the winter of 1848–49, Polish composer Frédéric Chopin, in the final months of his own life, visited his ailing compatriot soothed the poet's nerves with his piano music.<ref name="jachimecki"/> Over a dozen years earlier, Chopin had set two of Mickiewicz's poems to music (see Polish songs by Frédéric Chopin).<ref name="jachimecki2"/>
Final yearsEdit
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In the winter of 1849 Mickiewicz founded a French-language newspaper, La Tribune des Peuples (The Peoples' Tribune), supported by a wealthy Polish émigré activist, Template:Interlanguage link.<ref name="psb703"/> Mickiewicz wrote over 70 articles for the Tribune during its short existence: it came out between 15 March and 10 November 1849, when the authorities shut it down.<ref name="psb703"/><ref name="cze231"/> His articles supported democracy and socialism and many ideals of the French Revolution and of the Napoleonic era, though he held few illusions regarding the idealism of the House of Bonaparte.<ref name="psb703"/> He supported the restoration of the French Empire in 1851.<ref name="psb703"/> In April 1852 he lost his post at the Collège de France, which he had been allowed to keep up to that point (though without the right to lecture).<ref name="psb700"/><ref name="psb703"/> On 31 October 1852 he was hired as a librarian at the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal.<ref name="psb703"/><ref name="cze231"/> There he was visited by another Polish poet, Cyprian Norwid, who wrote of the meeting in his work Template:Ill; and there Mickiewicz's wife Celina died.<ref name="psb703"/>
Mickiewicz welcomed the Crimean War of 1853–1856, which he hoped would lead to a new European order including a restored independent Poland.<ref name="psb703"/> His last composition, a Latin ode Ad Napolionem III Caesarem Augustum Ode in Bomersundum captum, honored Napoleon III and celebrated the British-French victory over Russia at the Battle of Bomarsund<ref name="psb703"/> in Åland in August 1854. Polish émigrés associated with the Hôtel Lambert persuaded him to become active again in politics.<ref name="psb703"/><ref name="psb704"/> Soon after the Crimean War broke out (October 1853), the French government entrusted him with a diplomatic mission.<ref name="psb704"/> He left Paris on 11 September 1855, arriving in Constantinople, in the Ottoman Empire, on 22 September.<ref name="psb704"/> There, working with Michał Czajkowski (Sadyk Pasha), he began organizing Polish forces to fight under Ottoman command against Russia.<ref name="cze231"/><ref name="psb704"/> With his friend Armand Lévy he also set about organizing a Jewish legion.<ref name="cze231"/><ref name="psb704"/> He returned ill from a trip to a military camp to his apartment on Yenişehir Street in the Pera (now Beyoğlu) district of Constantinople and died on 26 November 1855.<ref name="psb704"/><ref name="rzeczypospolitej"/> Though Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński and others have speculated that political enemies might have poisoned Mickiewicz, there is no proof of this, and he probably contracted cholera, which claimed other lives there at the time.<ref name="cze231"/><ref name="psb704"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 1760-1850, Volume 2"/>
Mickiewicz's remains were transported to France, boarding ship on 31 December 1855, and were buried at Montmorency, Val-d'Oise, on 21 January 1861.<ref name="psb704"/> In 1890 they were disinterred, moved to Austrian Poland, and on 4 July entombed in the Template:Ill of Kraków's Wawel Cathedral, a place of final repose for a number of persons important to Poland's political and cultural history.<ref name="psb704"/>
WorksEdit
Mickiewicz's childhood environment exerted a major influence on his literary work.<ref name="cze208"/><ref name="psb694"/> His early years were shaped by immersion in folklore<ref name="cze208"/> and by vivid memories, which he later reworked in his poems, of the ruins of Navahrudak Castle and of the triumphant entry and disastrous retreat of Polish and Napoleonic troops during Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia, when Mickiewicz was just a teenager.<ref name="psb694" /> The year 1812 also marked his father's death.<ref name="psb694" /> Later, the poet's personality and subsequent works were greatly influenced by his four years of living and studying in Vilnius.<ref name="psb695"/> His first poems, such as the 1818 Zima miejska (City Winter) and the 1819 Template:Ill (Potato), were classical in style, influenced by Voltaire.<ref name="cze210" /><ref name="cze209" /> His Ballads and Romances and poetry anthologies published in 1822 (including the opening poem Template:Ill, Romanticism) and 1823 mark the start of romanticism in Poland.<ref name="psb695" /><ref name="cze210" /><ref name="cze212" /> Mickiewicz's influence popularized the use of folklore, folk literary forms, and historism in Polish romantic literature.<ref name="psb695" /> His exile to Moscow exposed him to a cosmopolitan environment, more international than provincial Vilnius and Kaunas in Lithuania.<ref name="psb696" /> This period saw a further evolution in his writing style, with Sonety (Sonnets, 1826) and Konrad Wallenrod (1828), both published in Russia.<ref name="psb696" /> The Sonety, mainly comprising his Crimean Sonnets, highlight the poet's ability and desire to write, and his longing for his homeland.<ref name="psb696" />
One of his major works, Dziady (Forefathers' Eve), comprises several parts written over an extended period of time.<ref name="psb698" /><ref name="cze214217" /> It began with publication of parts II and IV in 1823.<ref name="psb695" /> Miłosz remarks that it was "Mickiewicz's major theatrical achievement", a work which Mickiewicz saw as ongoing and to be continued in further parts.<ref name="cze222" /><ref name="cze214217" /> Its title refers to the pagan ancestor commemoration that had been practiced by Slavic and Baltic peoples on All Souls' Day.<ref name="cze214217" /> The year 1832 saw the publication of part III: much superior to the earlier parts, a "laboratory of innovative genres, styles and forms".<ref name="psb698" /> Part III was largely written over a few days; the "Great Improvisation" section, a "masterpiece of Polish poetry", is said to have been created during a single inspired night.<ref name="psb698" /> A long descriptive poem, Ustęp (Digression), accompanying part III and written sometime before it, sums up Mickiewicz's experiences in, and views on, Russia, portrays it as a huge prison, pities the oppressed Russian people, and wonders about their future.<ref name="cze224225" /> Miłosz describes it as a "summation of Polish attitudes towards Russia in the nineteenth century" and notes that it inspired responses from Pushkin (The Bronze Horseman) and Joseph Conrad (Under Western Eyes).<ref name="cze224225" /> The drama was first staged by Stanisław Wyspiański in 1901, becoming, in Miłosz's words, "a kind of national sacred play, occasionally forbidden by censorship because of its emotional impact upon the audience." The Polish government's 1968 closing down of a production of the play sparked the 1968 Polish political crisis.<ref name="cze223" /><ref name="Olszewska2007" />
Mickiewicz's Konrad Wallenrod (1828), a narrative poem describing battles of the Christian order of Teutonic Knights against the pagans of Lithuania,<ref name="Koropeckyj2008" /> is a thinly veiled allusion to the long feud between Russia and Poland.<ref name="Koropeckyj2008" /><ref name="psb696" /> The plot involves the use of subterfuge against a stronger enemy, and the poem analyzes moral dilemmas faced by the Polish insurgents who would soon launch the November 1830 Uprising.<ref name="psb696" /> Controversial to an older generation of readers, Konrad Wallenrod was seen by the young as a call to arms and was praised as such by an Uprising leader, poet Template:Interlanguage link.<ref name="Koropeckyj2008" /><ref name="psb696" /> Miłosz describes Konrad Wallenrod (named for its protagonist) as "the most committed politically of all Mickiewczi's poems."<ref name="cze221" /> The point of the poem, though obvious to many, escaped the Russian censors, and the poem was allowed to be published, complete with its telling motto drawn from Machiavelli: "Dovete adunque sapere come sono due generazioni di combattere – bisogna essere volpe e leone." ("Ye shall know that there are two ways of fighting – you must be a fox and a lion.")<ref name="Koropeckyj2008" /><ref name="psb696" /><ref name="cze220" /> On a purely literary level, the poem was notable for incorporating traditional folk elements alongside stylistic innovations.<ref name="psb696" />
Similarly noteworthy is Mickiewicz's earlier and longer 1823 poem, Grażyna, depicting the exploits of a Lithuanian chieftainess against the Teutonic Knights.<ref name="cze213"/><ref name="cze214"/> Miłosz writes that Grażyna "combines a metallic beat of lines and syntactical rigor with a plot and motifs dear to the Romantics."<ref name="cze213"/> It is said by Christien Ostrowski to have inspired Emilia Plater, a military heroine of the November 1830 Uprising.<ref name="The Westminster Review"/> A similar message informs Mickiewicz's "Oda do młodości" ("Ode to Youth").<ref name="psb695"/>
Mickiewicz's Crimean Sonnets (1825–26) and poems that he would later write in Rome and Lausanne, Miłosz notes, have been "justly ranked among the highest achievements in Polish [lyric poetry]."<ref name="cze220"/> His 1830 travels in Italy likely inspired him to consider religious matters, and produced some of his best religiously themed works, such as Arcymistrz (The Grand Master) and Do Marceliny Łempickiej (To Marcelina Łempicka).<ref name="psb697"/> He was an authority to the young insurgents of 1830–31, who expected him to participate in the fighting (the poet Template:Interlanguage link wrote a dedicated poem urging him to do so).<ref name="psb697"/> Yet it is likely that Mickiewicz was no longer as idealistic and supportive of military action as he had been a few years earlier, and his new works such as Template:Ill (To a Polish Mother, 1830), while still patriotic, also began to reflect on the tragedy of resistance.<ref name="psb697"/> His meetings with refugees and escaping insurgents around 1831 resulted in works such as Template:Ill (Ordon's Redoubt), Nocleg (Night Bivouac) and Template:Ill (Death of the Colonel).<ref name="psb697"/> Wyka notes the irony that some of the most important literary works about the 1830 Uprising were written by Mickiewicz, who never took part in a battle or even saw a battlefield.<ref name="psb697"/>
His Template:Ill (Books of the Polish Nation and the Polish Pilgrimage, 1832) opens with a historical-philosophical discussion of the history of humankind in which Mickiewicz argues that history is the history of now-unrealized freedom that awaits many oppressed nations in the future.<ref name="psb698" /><ref name="psb699" /> It is followed by a longer "moral catechism" aimed at Polish émigrés.<ref name="psb699" /> The book sets out a messianist metaphor of Poland as the "Christ of nations".<ref name="cze226" /> Described by Wyka as a propaganda piece, it was relatively simple, using biblical metaphors and the like to reach less-discriminating readers.<ref name="psb699" /> It became popular not only among Poles but, in translations, among some other peoples, primarily those which lacked their own sovereign states.<ref name="psb699" /><ref name="cze227" /> The Books were influential in framing Mickiewicz's image among many not as that of a poet and author but as that of ideologue of freedom.<ref name="psb699" />
Pan Tadeusz (Sir Thaddeus, published 1834), another of his masterpieces, is an epic poem that draws a picture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the eve of Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia.<ref name="psb699"/><ref name="cze227"/> It is written entirely in thirteen-syllable couplets.<ref name="cze227"/> Originally intended as an apolitical idyll, it became, as Miłosz writes, "something unique in world literature, and the problem of how to classify it has remained the crux of a constant quarrel among scholars"; it "has been called 'the last epos' in world literature".<ref name="cze228"/> Pan Tadeusz was not highly regarded by contemporaries, nor by Mickiewicz himself, but in time it won acclaim as "the highest achievement in all Polish literature."<ref name="cze229"/>
The occasional poems that Mickiewicz wrote in his final decades have been described as "exquisite, gnomic, extremely short and concise". His Lausanne Lyrics, (1839–40) are, writes Miłosz, "untranslatable masterpieces of metaphysical meditation. In Polish literature, they are examples of that pure poetry that verges on silence."<ref name="cze230"/>
In the 1830s (as early as 1830; as late as 1837) he worked on a futurist or science-fiction work, Template:Ill. (Historia przyszłości, or L’histoire d’avenir)<ref name="psb698" /> It predicted inventions similar to radio and television, and interplanetary communication using balloons.<ref name="psb698"/> Written partially in French, it was never completed and was partly destroyed by the author, but parts of its seven versions survive.<ref name="psb698"/> Other French-language works by Mickiewicz include the dramas Template:Ill (The Bar Confederates) and Template:Ill (Jacques Jasiński, or the Two Polands).<ref name="psb699"/> These would not achieve much recognition, and would not be published till 1866.<ref name="psb699"/>
Lithuanian languageEdit
Mickiewicz did not write any poems in Lithuanian. However, it is known that he did have some understanding of the Lithuanian language, although some Polish commentators describe it as limited.<ref name="Jackiewicz1999" /><ref name="znadwiliiwilno" /><ref name="Surwiło1993" />
In the poem Grażyna, Mickiewicz quoted one sentence from Kristijonas Donelaitis' Lithuanian-language poem The Seasons.<ref>Template:Cite video</ref> In Pan Tadeusz, there is an un-Polonized Lithuanian name Baublys.<ref>Template:Cite video</ref> Furthermore, due to Mickiewicz's position as lecturer on Lithuanian folklore and mythology in Collège de France, it can be inferred that he must have known the language sufficiently to lecture about it.<ref>Template:Cite video</ref> It is known that Adam Mickiewicz often sang Lithuanian folk songs with the Samogitian Ludmilew Korylski.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite video</ref> For example, in the early 1850s when in Paris, Mickiewicz interrupted a Lithuanian folk song sung by Ludmilew Korylski, commenting that he was singing it wrong and hence wrote down on a piece of paper how to sing the song correctly.<ref name=":0" /> On the piece of paper, there are fragments of three different Lithuanian folk songs (Ejk Tatuszeli i bytiu darża, Atjo żałnieros par łauka, Ej warneli, jod warneli isz),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> which are the sole, as of now, known Lithuanian writings by Adam Mickiewicz.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The folk songs are known to have been sung in Darbėnai.<ref>Template:Cite video</ref>
LegacyEdit
A prime figure of the Polish Romantic period, Mickiewicz is counted as one of Poland's Three Bards (the others being Zygmunt Krasiński and Juliusz Słowacki) and the greatest poet in all Polish literature.<ref name="mickiewicz"/><ref name="mickiewicz1"/><ref name="Cornis-PopeNeubauer2010"/> Mickiewicz has long been regarded as Poland's national poet<ref name="Adam Mickiewicz: the national poet of Poland"/><ref name="Krzyzanowski"/> and is a revered figure in Lithuania.<ref name="www"/> He is also considered one of the greatest Slavic<ref name="PomorskaBaran1992"/> and European<ref name="budowniczowie"/> poets. He has been described as a "Slavic bard."<ref name="fra"/> He was a leading Romantic dramatist<ref name="tm"/> and has been compared in Poland and in Europe with Byron and Goethe.<ref name=fra/><ref name=tm/>
The works of Mickiewicz also promoted the Lithuanian National Revival and the development of national self-awareness.<ref name="MickeviciusVle">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Mickiewicz's works began to be translated into the Lithuanian language when he was still alive (e.g. Simonas Daukantas, one of the pioneers of the Lithuanian National Revival, translated and retold a story {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in 1822, Kiprijonas Nezabitauskis translated {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and it was published in Paris in ~1836, Liudvikas Adomas Jucevičius translated a ballad {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in 1837).<ref name="MickeviciusVle"/> Moreover, Mickiewicz's works has influenced the pioneers of the Lithuanian National Revival in the 19th century (e.g. Antanas Baranauskas, Jonas Basanavičius, Stasys Matulaitis, Mykolas Biržiška, Petras Vileišis).<ref name="MickeviciusVle"/> Furthermore, the beginning of Vincas Kudirka's Tautiška giesmė (1898), the national anthem of Lithuania since 1919 and since 1988, is a paraphrase of the beginning of a poem Pan Tadeusz.<ref name="MickeviciusVle"/> The translation into Lithuanian and publishing of Mickiewicz's works has continued after the restoration of Lithuania's statehood in 1918.<ref name="MickeviciusVle"/>
Mickiewicz's importance extends beyond literature to the broader spheres of culture and politics; Wyka writes that he was a "singer and epic poet of the Polish people and a pilgrim for the freedom of nations."<ref name="psb704"/> Scholars have used the expression "cult of Mickiewicz" to describe the reverence in which he is held as a "national prophet."<ref name="psb704"/><ref name="Wachtel2006"/><ref name="Peterkiewicz1970"/> On hearing of Mickiewicz's death, his fellow bard Krasiński wrote:
For men of my generation, he was milk and honey, gall and life's blood: we all descend from him. He carried us off on the surging billow of his inspiration and cast us into the world.<ref name="psb704" /><ref name="MickiewiczAmerica1944" />
Edward Henry Lewinski Corwin described Mickiewicz's works as Promethean, as "reaching more Polish hearts" than the other Polish Bards, and affirmed Danish critic Georg Brandes' assessment of Mickiewicz's works as "healthier" than those of Byron, Shakespeare, Homer, and Goethe.<ref name="corwin" /> Koropeckyi writes that Mickiewicz has "informed the foundations of [many] parties and ideologies" in Poland from the 19th century to this day, "down to the rappers in Poland's post-socialist blocks, who can somehow still declare that 'if Mickiewicz was alive today, he'd be a good rapper.'"<ref name="Koropeckyi2008-pref" /> While Mickiewicz's popularity has endured two centuries in Poland, he is less well known abroad, but in the 19th century he had won substantial international fame among "people that dared resist the brutal might of reactionary empires."<ref name="Koropeckyi2008-pref" />
Mickiewicz has been written about or had works dedicated to him by many authors in Poland (Asnyk, Gałczyński, Iwaszkiewicz, Jastrun, Kasprowicz, Lechoń, Konopnicka, Teofil Lenartowicz, Norwid, Przyboś, Różewicz, Słonimski, Słowacki, Staff, Tetmajer, Tuwim, Ujejski, Wierzyński, Zaleski and others) and by authors outside Poland (Bryusov, Goethe, Pushkin, Uhland, Vrchlický and others).<ref name="psb704"/> He has been a character in works of fiction, including a large body of dramatized biographies, e.g., in 1900, Stanisław Wyspiański's Legion.<ref name="psb704"/> He has also been a subject of many paintings, by Eugène Delacroix, Józef Oleszkiewicz, Aleksander Orłowski, Wojciech Stattler and Walenty Wańkowicz.<ref name="psb705"/> Monuments and other tributes (streets and schools named for him) abound in Poland and Lithuania, and in other former territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: Ukraine and Belarus.<ref name="psb704" /><ref name="Koropeckyi2008-pref" /> He has also been the subject of many statues and busts by Antoine Bourdelle, David d'Angers, Template:Interlanguage link, Władysław Oleszczyński, Template:Interlanguage link, Teodor Rygier, Wacław Szymanowski and Jakub Tatarkiewicz.<ref name="psb705"/> In 1898, the 100th anniversary of his birth, a towering statue by Cyprian Godebski was erected in Warsaw. Its base carries the inscription, "To the Poet from the People."<ref name="Warsaw and surroundings"/> In 1955, the 100th anniversary of his death, the University of Poznań adopted him as its official patron.<ref name="psb704"/>
Much has been written about Mickiewicz, though the vast majority of this scholarly and popular literature is available only in Polish. Works devoted to him, according to Koropeckyi, author of a 2008 English biography, "could fill a good shelf or two."<ref name="Koropeckyi2008-pref" /> Koropeckyi notes that, apart from some specialist literature, only five book-length biographies of Mickiewicz have been published in English.<ref name="Koropeckyi2008-pref" /> He also writes that, though many of Mickiewicz's works have been reprinted numerous times, no language has a "definitive critical edition of his works."<ref name="Koropeckyi2008-pref" />
MuseumsEdit
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A number of museums in Europe are dedicated to Mickiewicz:
- Warsaw has an Adam Mickiewicz Museum of Literature.<ref name="psb704" />
- His house in Navahrudak is now a museum (Template:Interlanguage link).<ref name="Muzeum Adama Mickiewicza w Nowogródku" />
- There is a Mickievičiaus Memorialinis Butas-Muziejus Museum of Adam Mickiewicz in Vilnius.
- The House of Perkūnas in Kaunas where the school Mickiewicz attended used to be located has a museum devoted to him and his work.
- The house where he lived and died in Constantinople (Adam Mickiewicz Museum, Istanbul).<ref name="psb704" />
- There is a Musée Adam Mickiewicz in Paris, France.<ref name="Musee Adam Mickiewicz"/>
EthnicityEdit
Mickiewicz is known as a Polish poet,<ref name="O'Connor2006"/><ref name="Kridl1951"/><ref name="Murray2004"/><ref name="Classe2000"/><ref name="prospects"/> Polish-Lithuanian,<ref name="william"/><ref name="communicating"/><ref name="United Nations in Belarus - Culture"/><ref name="katolickiego"/> Lithuanian,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or Belarusian.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Cambridge History of Russia describes him as Polish but sees his ethnic origins as "Lithuanian-Belarusian (and perhaps Jewish)."<ref name="The Cambridge History of Russia: Imperial Russia, 1689-1917"/>
Some sources assert that Mickiewicz's mother was descended from a converted, Frankist Jewish family.<ref name="movement"/><ref name="encyclopaedia"/><ref name="brotherhood"/> Others view this as improbable.<ref name="cze231"/><ref name="contemporaries"/><ref name="frankists"/><ref name="niniwa2"/> Polish historian Kazimierz Wyka, in his biographic entry in Polski Słownik Biograficzny (1975) wrote that this hypothesis, based on the fact that his mother's maiden name, Majewska, was popular among Frankist Jews, but has not been proven.<ref name="psb694"/> Wyka states that the poet's mother was the daughter of a noble (szlachta) family of Starykoń coat of arms, living on an estate at Czombrów in Nowogródek Voivodeship (Navahrudak Voivodeship).<ref name="psb694"/> According to the Belarusian historian Rybczonek, Mickiewicz's mother had Tatar (Lipka Tatars) roots.<ref name="mickiewicza" />
Virgil Krapauskas noted that "Lithuanians like to prove that Adam Mickiewicz was Lithuanian"<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> while Tomas Venclova described this attitude as "the story of Mickiewicz's appropriation by Lithuanian culture".<ref name="venc" /> For example, the Lithuanian scholar of literature Template:Interlanguage link writes that Mickiewicz's family was descended from an old Lithuanian noble family (with ancestor's name Rimvydas) with origins predating Lithuania's Christianization,<ref name="antologija"/> but the Lithuanian nobility in Mickiewicz's time was heavily Polonized and spoke Polish.<ref name=venc/> Mickiewicz had been brought up in the culture of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a multicultural state that had encompassed most of what today are the separate countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. To Mickiewicz, a splitting of that multicultural state into separate entities – due to trends such as Lithuanian National Revival – was undesirable,<ref name=venc/> if not outright unthinkable.<ref name="O'Connor2006"/> According to Romanucci-Ross, while Mickiewicz called himself a Litvin ("Lithuanian"), in his time the idea of a separate "Lithuanian identity", apart from a "Polish" one, did not exist.<ref name="prospects"/> This multicultural aspect is evident in his works: his most famous poetic work, Pan Tadeusz, begins with the Polish-language invocation, "Oh Lithuania, my homeland, thou art like health ..." ("Litwo! Ojczyzno moja! ty jesteś jak zdrowie ..."). It is generally accepted, however, that Mickiewicz, when referring to Lithuania, meant a historical region rather than a linguistic and cultural entity, and he often applied the term "Lithuanian" to the Slavic inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.<ref name="venc"/>
Selected worksEdit
- Oda do młodości (Ode to Youth), 1820
- Ballady i romanse (Ballads and Romances), 1822
- Grażyna, 1823
- Sonety krymskie (The Crimean Sonnets), 1826
- Konrad Wallenrod, 1828
- Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (The Books of the Polish People and of the Polish Pilgrimage), 1832
- Pan Tadeusz (Sir Thaddeus, Mr. Thaddeus), 1834
- Lausanne Lyrics, 1839–40
- Dziady (Forefathers' Eve), four parts, published from 1822 to after the author's death
- L'histoire d'avenir (A History of the Future), an unpublished French-language science-fiction novel
See alsoEdit
- History of philosophy in Poland
- List of things named after Adam Mickiewicz
- List of Poles
- Polish literature
- Template:Intitle
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
SourcesEdit
Further readingEdit
External linksEdit
Template:Sister projectTemplate:Namespace detect Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:EB1911 poster
- Template:StandardEbooks
- Template:Gutenberg author
- Template:Internet Archive author
- Template:Librivox author
- Four Sonnets translated by Leo Yankevich
- Translation of "the Akkerman Steppe"
- Sonnets from the Crimea (Sonety krymskie) translated by Edna W. Underwood
- Adam Mickiewicz Selected Poems (in English)
- Mickiewicz's works: text, concordances and frequency list
- Polish Literature in English Translation: Mickiewicz
- Adam Mickiewicz Museum Istanbul (in Turkish)
- Polish poetry in English (includes a few poems by Mickiewicz)
- Adam Mickiewicz at Culture.pl
- Translating Mickiewicz: Poland's International Man of Mystery at Culture.pl
- Adam Mickiewicz Slept Here! A Worldwide Guide to Museums of Poland's Poetic Hero at Culture.pl
- Adam Mickiewicz at poezja.org (polish)
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