Siege of Masada

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Template:Campaignbox First Jewish-Roman War The siege of Masada was one of the final events in the First Jewish–Roman War, occurring from 72 to 73 AD on and around a hilltop in present-day Israel. The siege is known to history via a single source, Flavius Josephus,<ref>The Myth of Masada: How Reliable Was Josephus, Anyway?: "The only source we have for the story of Masada, and numerous other reported events from the time, is the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, author of the book The Jewish War."</ref> a Jewish rebel leader captured by the Romans, in whose service he became a historian. According to Josephus the long siege by the troops of the Roman Empire led to the mass suicide of the Sicarii rebels and resident Jewish families of the Masada fortress.

In modern times, the story of the siege was revived as the Masada myth, a selectively constructed narrative based on Josephus's account. The mythical narrative became a national symbol in the early years of Israel's nationhood.Template:Sfn

BackgroundEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Masada has been described as "a lozenge-shaped table-mountain" that is "lofty, isolated, and to all appearance impregnable".<ref name="Richmond" /> Historically, the fortress could be reached only by a single pathway that was too narrow for men to walk abreast. This pathway was named "the Snake" for the way it twists and zig-zags to the summit.<ref name="Richmond" /> Masada was named as the place where David rested after fleeing from his father-in-law, King Saul.<ref name="Sicarii" />

Flavius Josephus, a Jew born and raised in Jerusalem, is the only historian to provide a detailed account of the First Jewish–Roman War and the only person who recorded what happened on Masada. After being captured during the Siege of Yodfat and then freed by Vespasian, Josephus chronicled the Roman campaign.<ref name="Josephus" /> Josephus presumably based his narration on the field commentaries of the Roman commanders.<ref>Template:Cite EJ</ref>

According to Josephus, Masada was first constructed by the Hasmoneans. Between 37 and 31 BC Herod the Great fortified it as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt. In 66 AD, at the beginning of the First Jewish–Roman War, a group of Jewish extremists called the Sicarii overcame the Roman garrison of Masada and settled there. The Sicarii were commanded by Eleazar ben Ya'ir,<ref name="Richmond" /> and in 70 AD they were joined by additional Sicarii and their families expelled from Jerusalem by the Jewish population with whom the Sicarii were in conflict.

Shortly thereafter, following the Roman siege of Jerusalem and subsequent destruction of the Second Temple, additional members of the Sicarii and many Jewish families fled Jerusalem and settled on the mountaintop, with the Sicarii using it as a refuge and base for raiding the surrounding countryside.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

According to modern interpretations of Josephus, the Sicarii were an extremist splinter group of the Zealots and were equally antagonistic to both Romans and other Jewish groups.<ref name=NBY>Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. The Masada Myth: Scholar presents evidence that the heroes of the Jewish Great Revolt were not heroes at all Template:Webarchive, The Bible and Interpretation</ref> It was the Zealots, in contrast to the Sicarii, who carried the main burden of the rebellion, which opposed Roman rule of Judea.

According to Josephus, on Passover, the Sicarii raided Ein Gedi, a nearby Jewish settlement, and killed 700 of its inhabitants.<ref>The Wars of the Jews, or History of the Destruction of Jerusalem, by Flavius Josephus, translated by William Whiston, Project Gutenberg, Book IV, Chapter 7, paragraph 2.</ref><ref>Flavius Josephus, De bello Judaico libri vii, B. Niese, Ed. J. BJ 4.7.2</ref><ref>"Ancient battle divides Israel as Masada 'myth' unravels; Was the siege really so heroic, asks Patrick Cockburn in Jerusalem", The Independent, 30 March 1997</ref>

Archaeology indicates that the Sicarii modified some of the structures they found at Masada. These include a building that was modified to function as a synagogue. It may in fact have been a synagogue to begin with, although it did not contain a mikvah or the benches found in other early synagogues.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is one of the oldest synagogues in Israel.

Josephus's narrativeEdit

File:Masada Roman Ruins by David Shankbone.jpg

Remnants of Camp F, one of several legionary camps just outside the circumvallation wall around Masada

In 72 AD, the Roman governor of Judaea, Lucius Flavius Silva, led Roman legion X Fretensis, a number of auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war, totaling some 15,000 men and women, of whom an estimated 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting men,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> to lay siege to the 960 people in Masada. The Roman legion surrounded Masada and built a circumvallation wall, before commencing construction of a siege ramp against the western face of the plateau, moving thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth to do so. Josephus does not record any attempts by the Sicarii to counterattack the besiegers during this process, a significant difference from his accounts of other sieges of the war.

File:Masada Roman Ramp by David Shankbone.jpg

The Roman siege ramp seen from above. This was partly rebuilt for a 1981 TV miniseries, "Masada".

The ramp was completed in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege. A giant siege tower with a battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the completed ramp, while the Romans assaulted the wall, discharging "a volley of blazing torches against ... a wall of timber",<ref name="Richmond" /> allowing the Romans to breach the wall of the fortress on April 16, 73 AD.<ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal The dating is explained on pp. 29 and 32.</ref>

When the Romans entered the fortress, they found it to be "a citadel of death".<ref name="Richmond" /> The Jewish rebels had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and had killed each other, declaring "a glorious death ... preferable to a life of infamy".<ref name="whc.unesco.org" />

According to Josephus, "The Jews hoped that all of their nation beyond the Euphrates would join together with them to raise an insurrection", but in the end there were only 960 Jewish Zealots who fought the Roman army at Masada.<ref name="Josephus" /> When these Zealots were trapped on top of Masada with nowhere to run, Josephus tells us that the Zealots believed "it [was] by the will of God, and by necessity, that [they] are to die."<ref name="Josephus" />

Scholarly analysisEdit

According to Shaye Cohen, archaeology shows that Josephus' account is "incomplete and inaccurate" and contradicted by the "skeletons in the cave, and the numerous separate fires".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Cohen speculates that "some Jews killed themselves, some fought to the death, and some attempted to hide and escape. The Romans were in no mood to take prisoners and massacred all whom they found."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

According to Kenneth Atkinson, there is no "archaeological evidence that Masada's defenders committed mass suicide."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

According to archaeologist Eric H. Cline, Josephus' narrative is impossible because the Romans would have immediately pressed their advantage, leaving no time for Eleazar's speech or the mass suicides. Instead, Cline proposes that the defenders were massacred by Romans.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Roman strategyEdit

According to military strategist Edward Luttwak, the Roman effort at Masada, deploying vast resources and engineering ingenuity to eliminate a small pocket of resistance in an isolated desert fortress of no strategic importance, may have been intended as a message to those considering rebellion: the Romans would relentlessly pursue and crush rebels, even at great cost, to eradicate any trace of resistance.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

ArchaeologyEdit

Template:Expand section The Masada site was extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archaeologist and former military Chief-of-Staff Yigael Yadin.

Masada mythEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The siege of Masada and the resulting Masada myth is often revered in modern Israel as "a symbol of Jewish heroism".<ref name="Isseroff" /> According to Klara Palotai, "Masada became a symbol for a heroic 'last stand' for the State of Israel and played a major role for Israel in forging national identity."<ref name="Palotai" />

To Israel, it symbolized the courage of the warriors of Masada, the strength they showed when they were able to keep hold of Masada for almost three years, and their choice of death over slavery in their struggle against an aggressive empire. Masada had become "the performance space of national heritage", the site of military ceremonies.<ref name="Palotai" /> Palotai states how Masada "developed a special 'love affair' with archeology" because the site had drawn people from all around the world to help locate the remnants of the fortress and the battle that occurred there.<ref name="Palotai" />

In worksEdit

Masada: An Historical Epic, 1927 poem by Yitzhak Lamdan
The Antagonists (novel), 1971 novel
Masada (miniseries), 1981 American miniseries
The Dovekeepers, 2011 novel
The Dovekeepers, 2015 miniseries

ReferencesEdit

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Siege of Masada

Contents

BackgroundEdit

Josephus's narrativeEdit

Scholarly analysisEdit

Roman strategyEdit

ArchaeologyEdit

Masada mythEdit

In worksEdit

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

Further readingEdit

HistoryEdit

Archeological reportsEdit