Tollund Man
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The Tollund Man (died 405–384 BC) is a naturally mummified corpse of a man who lived during the 5th century BC, during the period characterised in Scandinavia as the Pre-Roman Iron Age.<ref name="pbs1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He was found in 1950, preserved as a bog body near Silkeborg on the Jutland peninsula in Denmark.<ref name="bog">Template:Cite book</ref> The man's physical features were so well preserved that he was mistaken for a recent murder victim.<ref name="lib"/> Twelve years before his discovery, another bog body, Elling Woman, was found in the same bog.<ref>"Violence in the Bogs" Template:Webarchive, Archaeological Institute of America</ref>
The cause of death has been determined to be by hanging. There is insufficient evidence to determine if the reason for the killing was a ritual sacrifice or a punitive execution.<ref name="GREEN"/><ref>Why did Tollund Man have to die?, Museum Silkeborg</ref>
DiscoveryEdit
On 8 May 1950, peat cutters Viggo and Emil Hojgaard discovered a corpse in the peat layer of the Bjældskovdal peat bog, Template:Cvt west of Silkeborg, Denmark,<ref name="lib">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> which was so well preserved that they at first believed they had discovered a recent murder victim.
The Tollund Man lay Template:Cvt away from firm ground, buried under Template:Cvt of peat, his body arranged in a fetal position.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He wore a pointed skin cap of sheepskin and wool, fastened under his chin by a hide thong, and a smooth hide belt around his waist. Additionally, a noose made of plaited animal hide was drawn tight around his neck and trailed down his back.<ref name="bog"/> Other than these, the body was naked. His hair was cropped so short as to be almost entirely hidden by his cap. There was short stubble (Template:Cvt in length) on his chin and upper lip, suggesting that he was usually clean-shaven, but had not shaved on the day of his death.<ref name="hair">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Tollund Man was approximately 40 years old. The Tollund Man's last meal consisted of a porridge with barley, flax, wild weed seeds, and some fish.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Scientific examination and conclusionsEdit
Radiocarbon dating of Tollund Man indicated that he died circa 405–380 BC.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The preserved tender soft tissues of his body are the consequence of the acid in the peat, along with the lack of oxygen underneath the surface and the cold climate of the Nordic countries. The acid in the peat, needed for the preservation of a human body, is caused by a bryophyte named Sphagnum. Sphagnum fights against degradation due to resistant phenolic compounds contained in their cell walls.<ref>Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, Jackson. "L'importance écologique et économique des Bryophytes". Campbell Biologie 4th Edition (2012): p. 705, 17 October 2014.</ref> Due to the acidity of peat, bones are typically dissolved rather than preserved.
Scientists conducted an isotope analysis of the element strontium to measure the exact quantities to get an accurate idea of where he may have travelled before his death. They took samples from his femur and hair to compare. They were only able to measure up to a year because of his hair being short. The results contained only small differences in strontium isotope proportions, suggesting that he spent his final year in Denmark, and that he may have moved at least Template:Convert in his last six months.<ref name=Levine2017>Template:Cite news</ref>
Examinations and X-rays showed that the man's head was undamaged, and his heart, lungs and liver were well preserved. The Silkeborg Museum estimated his age as approximately 40 years and height at Template:Cvt, a relatively short stature even for the time. It is likely that the body had shrunk in the bog.
On the initial autopsy report in 1950, doctors concluded that Tollund Man died by hanging rather than strangulation.<ref>Silkeborg Museum, The Tollund Man's Appearance Template:Webarchive, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004</ref> The rope left visible furrows in the skin beneath his chin and at the sides of his neck. There was no mark, however, at the back of the neck where the knot of the noose would have been located. After a re-examination in 2002, forensic scientists found further evidence to support these initial findings.<ref>Silkeborg Museum, Latest Research Template:Webarchive, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004</ref> Although the cervical vertebrae were undamaged (these vertebrae are often damaged as a result of hanging), radiography showed that the tongue was distended—an indication of death by hanging.<ref>Silkeborg Museum, Was the Tollund Man Hanged? Template:Webarchive, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library (SPL), 2004</ref>
The stomach and intestines were examined and tests were carried out on their contents.<ref name="Meal"/> Scientists identified the man's last meal as porridge or gruel made from grains and seeds, both cultivated and wild. Approximately 40 kinds of seeds were identified, but the porridge was primarily composed of four types: barley, flax, false flax (Camelina sativa) and knotgrass.<ref name="Meal">Silkeborg Museum, The Last Meal Template:Webarchive, Silkeborg Museum and Amtscentret for Undervisning, Silkeborg Public Library, 2004</ref> From the stage of digestion it was concluded that the man had eaten 12 to 24 hours prior to his death. Porridges were common for people of this time.<ref name="Meal"/> Because neither meat nor fresh fruit was found in the last meal, it is suggested that the meal was eaten in winter or early spring when these items were not available.<ref name="Meal"/>
Both feet and the right thumb, being well conserved by the peat, were also preserved in formalin for later examination. In 1976, the Danish police made a fingerprint analysis, making Tollund Man's thumbprint one of the oldest prints on record.<ref name="Prints">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Cause of deathEdit
The reason for Tollund Man's death has not been definitively determined.<ref name="GREEN">Template:Cite journal</ref> Some scholars believe the man was a ritual sacrifice because of the special treatment of the body: the arranged position of his body, the eyes and mouth being closed and the special meal that had been ingested.<ref name="GREEN"/><ref name=kings>Hart, Edward, dir. Ghosts of Murdered Kings. NOVA. Prod. Edward Hart and Dan McCabe, PBS, 29 January 2014</ref> However, other scholars believe that his death may have been an execution,<ref name="GREEN"/> in part because Germanic tribes buried traitors under piles of sticks.<ref>Why did Tollund Man have to die?, Museum Silkeborg</ref>
DisplayEdit
The body is displayed at the Silkeborg Museum in Denmark, although only the head is original. Because conservation techniques for organic material were insufficiently advanced in the early 1950s for the entire body to be preserved, the forensic examiners suggested the head be severed and the rest of the body remain unpreserved. Subsequently, the body was desiccated and the tissue disappeared. In 1987, the Silkeborg Museum reconstructed the body using the skeletal remains as a base. As displayed today, the original head is attached to a replica of the body.<ref name="Preservation">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Other bodiesEdit
In Denmark, more than 500 bog bodies and skeletal remains dating to the Iron Age have been recovered.<ref name="NGEO">Template:Cite journal</ref> Specimens from Jutland include the relatively well-preserved Borremose bodies, Huldremose Woman, Grauballe Man on display at Moesgaard Museum near Aarhus, and the similarly conserved Haraldskær Woman. Approximately 30 of these bog bodies are housed and/or displayed in Danish museums for continued research.<ref name="NGEO"/>
In popular cultureEdit
Nobel Prize-winning Irish poet Seamus Heaney wrote a series of poems inspired by P. V. Glob's study of the mummified Iron Age bodies found in Jutland's peat bogs, finding contemporary political relevance in the relics of the ritualistic killings.<ref name="Heaney">Template:Cite book</ref> Heaney's poem "The Tollund Man", published in his Wintering Out collection, compares the ritual sacrifice to those who died in the sectarian violence of "the Troubles".<ref name="Heaney"/> Heaney wrote an excerpt from the poem in the Tollund Man exhibit's guest book in 1973.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
British author Margaret Drabble, in her 1989 novel A Natural Curiosity, uses her characters' obsession with the Tollund Man to provide a satirical criticism of Margaret Thatcher's modern England.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Tollund Man is featured in several songs: "Tollund Man" (1995) by the American folk band The Mountain Goats and "Curse of the Tollund Man" (2004) by the English rock band The Darkness.
Tollund Man was mentioned in the episode "Mummy in the Maze" of the American television series Bones<ref>Williams, Scott. "Mummy in the Maze". Bones. Dir. Marita Grabiak. Fox. 30 Oct. 2007. Web. 15 Nov. 2016.</ref> and was also mentioned in the 2016 film Sacrifice in which a bog body was found in the Shetland Islands.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
He is the subject of the novel Meet Me at the Museum by Anne Youngson in which the main characters bond through a shared fascination with the Tollund Man.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See alsoEdit
CitationsEdit
General sourcesEdit
- Template:Cite book Translated from the Danish original: Mosefolket: Jernalderens Mennesker bevaret i 2000 År, 1965. The Wikipedia article: The Bog People.
Further readingEdit
- Template:Cite book
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- Giles, Melanie (2020). Bog Bodies, Face to Face with the Past. Open Access, https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/46717
