Type 2 diabetes
Template:Short description Template:Pp-semi-indef Template:Cs1 config Template:Good article Template:Infobox medical condition (new)
Type 2 diabetes (T2D), formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin.<ref name="NIH2014Cause">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue and unexplained weight loss.<ref name="NIH2014Diag" /> Other symptoms include increased hunger, having a sensation of pins and needles, and sores (wounds) that heal slowly.<ref name="NIH2014Diag" /> Symptoms often develop slowly.<ref name="NIH2014Cause" /> Long-term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease, stroke, diabetic retinopathy, which can result in blindness, kidney failure, and poor blood flow in the lower limbs, which may lead to amputations.<ref name=WHO2024/> A sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur; however, ketoacidosis is uncommon.<ref name="Pas2014">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Fas2008">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Type 2 diabetes primarily occurs as a result of obesity and lack of exercise.<ref name=WHO2024/> Some people are genetically more at risk than others.<ref name=NIH2014Cause/> Type 2 diabetes makes up about 90% of cases of diabetes, with the other 10% due primarily to type 1 diabetes and gestational diabetes.<ref name="WHO2024" />
Diagnosis of diabetes is by blood tests such as fasting plasma glucose, oral glucose tolerance test, or glycated hemoglobin (A1c).<ref name="NIH2014Diag">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Type 2 diabetes is largely preventable by staying at a normal weight, exercising regularly, and eating a healthy diet (high in fruits and vegetables and low in sugar and saturated fat).<ref name=WHO2024/>
Treatment involves exercise and dietary changes.<ref name=WHO2024/> If blood sugar levels are not adequately lowered, the medication metformin is typically recommended.<ref name="Ann2016">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Metformin2020">Template:Cite journal</ref> Many people may eventually also require insulin injections.<ref name="Kre2005">Template:Cite journal</ref> In those on insulin, routinely checking blood sugar levels (such as through a continuous glucose monitor) is advised; however, this may not be needed in those who are not on insulin therapy.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Bariatric surgery often improves diabetes in those who are obese.<ref name="Cet2015">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Rates of type 2 diabetes have increased markedly since 1960 in parallel with obesity.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> As of 2015, there were approximately 392 million people diagnosed with the disease compared to around 30 million in 1985.<ref name=GBD2015Pre>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Epi2006>Template:Cite journal</ref> Typically, it begins in middle or older age,<ref name=NIH2014Cause/> although rates of type 2 diabetes are increasing in young people.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Type 2 diabetes is associated with a ten-year-shorter life expectancy.<ref name=Will2011>Template:Cite book</ref> Diabetes was one of the first diseases ever described, dating back to an Egyptian manuscript from Template:Circa BCE.<ref name=Rip2011>Template:Cite book</ref> Type 1 and type 2 diabetes were identified as separate conditions in 400–500 CE with type 1 associated with youth and type 2 with being overweight.<ref name=History2010/> The importance of insulin in the disease was determined in the 1920s.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:TOC limit
Signs and symptomsEdit
The classic symptoms of diabetes are frequent urination (polyuria), increased thirst (polydipsia), increased hunger (polyphagia), and weight loss.<ref name=Vij2010>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other symptoms that are commonly present at diagnosis include a history of blurred vision, itchiness, peripheral neuropathy, recurrent vaginal infections, and fatigue.<ref name="Green2011">Template:Cite book</ref> Other symptoms may include loss of taste.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Many people, however, have no symptoms during the first few years and are diagnosed on routine testing.<ref name=Green2011/> A small number of people with type 2 diabetes can develop a hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (a condition of very high blood sugar associated with a decreased level of consciousness and low blood pressure).<ref name=Green2011/>
ComplicationsEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Type 2 diabetes is typically a chronic disease associated with a ten-year-shorter life expectancy.<ref name=Will2011/><ref name=ToolsPredictRisk>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This is partly due to a number of complications with which it is associated, including: two to four times the risk of cardiovascular disease, including ischemic heart disease and stroke; a 20-fold increase in lower limb amputations, and increased rates of hospitalizations.<ref name="Will2011" /> In the developed world, and increasingly elsewhere, type 2 diabetes is the largest cause of nontraumatic blindness and kidney failure.<ref name="AFP09" /> It has also been associated with an increased risk of cognitive dysfunction and dementia through disease processes such as Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other complications include hyperpigmentation of skin (acanthosis nigricans), sexual dysfunction, diabetic ketoacidosis, and frequent infections.<ref name=Vij2010/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There is also an association between type 2 diabetes and mild hearing loss.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
CausesEdit
The development of type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of lifestyle and genetic factors.<ref name=AFP09/><ref name=Fat2009>Template:Cite journal</ref> While some of these factors are under personal control, such as diet and obesity, other factors are not, such as increasing age, female sex, and genetics.<ref name=Will2011/> Generous consumption of alcohol is also a risk factor.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Obesity is more common in women than men in many parts of Africa.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The nutritional status of a mother during fetal development may also play a role.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
LifestyleEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Lifestyle factors are important to the development of type 2 diabetes, including obesity and being overweight (defined by a body mass index of greater than 25), lack of physical activity, poor diet, psychological stress, and urbanization.<ref name=Will2011/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Excess body fat is associated with 30% of cases in those of Chinese and Japanese descent, 60–80% of cases in those of European and African descent, and 100% of cases in Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders.<ref name=Green2011/> Among those who are not obese, a high waist–hip ratio is often present.<ref name=Green2011/> Smoking appears to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Lack of sleep has also been linked to type 2 diabetes.<ref name=Sleep2011>Template:Cite journal</ref> Laboratory studies have linked short-term sleep deprivations to changes in glucose metabolism, nervous system activity, or hormonal factors that may lead to diabetes.<ref name=Sleep2011/>
Dietary factors also influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks in excess is associated with an increased risk.<ref name=SSB2010>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The type of fats in the diet are important, with saturated fat and trans fatty acids increasing the risk, and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat decreasing the risk.<ref name=Fat2009 /> Eating a lot of white rice appears to play a role in increasing risk.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A lack of exercise is believed to cause 7% of cases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Sedentary lifestyle is another risk factor.<ref name="pmid29589226">Template:Cite journal</ref> Persistent organic pollutants may also play a role.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
GeneticsEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Most cases of diabetes involve many genes, with each being a small contributor to an increased probability of becoming a type 2 diabetic.<ref name=Will2011/> The proportion of diabetes that is inherited is estimated at 72%.<ref name=Will2016>Template:Cite journal</ref> More than 36 genes and 80 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) had been found that contribute to the risk of type 2 diabetes.<ref name=Genetic2011>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> All of these genes together still only account for 10% of the total heritable component of the disease.<ref name=Genetic2011/> The TCF7L2 allele, for example, increases the risk of developing diabetes by 1.5 times and is the greatest risk of the common genetic variants.<ref name=Green2011/> Most of the genes linked to diabetes are involved in pancreatic beta cell functions.<ref name=Green2011/>
There are a number of rare cases of diabetes that arise due to an abnormality in a single gene (known as monogenic forms of diabetes or "other specific types of diabetes").<ref name=Will2011/><ref name=Green2011/> These include maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY), Donohue syndrome, and Rabson–Mendenhall syndrome, among others.<ref name=Will2011/> Maturity onset diabetes of the young constitute 1–5% of all cases of diabetes in young people.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Epigenetic regulation may have a role in type 2 diabetes.<ref>Rosen ED, Kaestner KH, Natarajan R, Patti ME, Sallari R, Sander M, Susztak K. Epigenetics and Epigenomics: Implications for Diabetes and Obesity. Diabetes. 2018 Oct;67(10):1923-1931. doi:10.2337/db18-0537. Template:PMID. Template:PMC</ref>
Medical conditionsEdit
There are a number of medications and other health problems that can predispose to diabetes.<ref name=BookDM2008>Template:Cite book</ref> Some of the medications include: glucocorticoids, thiazides, beta blockers, atypical antipsychotics,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and statins.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Those who have previously had gestational diabetes are at a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.<ref name=Vij2010/> Other health problems that are associated include: acromegaly, Cushing's syndrome, hyperthyroidism, pheochromocytoma, and certain cancers such as glucagonomas.<ref name=BookDM2008/> Individuals with cancer may be at a higher risk of mortality if they also have diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Testosterone deficiency is also associated with type 2 diabetes.<ref name=pmid19444934>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=pmid18832284>Template:Cite journal</ref> Eating disorders may also interact with type 2 diabetes, with bulimia nervosa increasing the risk and anorexia nervosa decreasing it.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
PathophysiologyEdit
Type 2 diabetes is due to insufficient insulin production from beta cells in the setting of insulin resistance.<ref name=Green2011/> Insulin resistance, which is the inability of cells to respond adequately to normal levels of insulin, occurs primarily within the muscles, liver, and fat tissue.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the liver, insulin normally suppresses glucose release. However, in the setting of insulin resistance, the liver inappropriately releases glucose into the blood.<ref name=Will2011/> The proportion of insulin resistance versus beta cell dysfunction differs among individuals, with some having primarily insulin resistance and only a minor defect in insulin secretion and others with slight insulin resistance and primarily a lack of insulin secretion.<ref name=Green2011/>
Other potentially important mechanisms associated with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance include: increased breakdown of lipids within fat cells, resistance to and lack of incretin, high glucagon levels in the blood, increased retention of salt and water by the kidneys, and inappropriate regulation of metabolism by the central nervous system.<ref name=Will2011/> However, not all people with insulin resistance develop diabetes since an impairment of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells is also required.<ref name=Green2011/>
In the early stages of insulin resistance, the mass of beta cells expands, increasing the output of insulin to compensate for the insulin insensitivity, so that the disposition index remains constant.<ref name="pmid31831356">Template:Cite journal</ref> But when type 2 diabetes has become manifest, the person will have lost about half of their beta cells.<ref name="pmid31831356" />
The causes of the aging-related insulin resistance seen in obesity and in type 2 diabetes are uncertain. Effects of intracellular lipid metabolism and ATP production in liver and muscle cells may contribute to insulin resistance.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
DiagnosisEdit
Template:OGTT The World Health Organization definition of diabetes (both type 1 and type 2) is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms, or for raised glucose readings on two separate dates, of either:<ref name=who-99>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- fasting plasma glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL)
- or
- glucose tolerance test with two hours after the oral dose a plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL)
A random blood sugar of greater than 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) in association with typical symptoms<ref name=Vij2010/> or a glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) of ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5 DCCT %) is another method of diagnosing diabetes.<ref name=Will2011/> In 2009, an International Expert Committee that included representatives of the American Diabetes Association (ADA), the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) recommended that a HbA1c threshold of ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5 DCCT %) should be used to diagnose diabetes.<ref name=Expert2009/> This recommendation was adopted by the American Diabetes Association in 2010.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Positive tests should be repeated unless the person presents with typical symptoms and blood sugar >11.1 mmol/L (>200 mg/dL).<ref name=Expert2009>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Diabetes mellitus | Prediabetes | |
---|---|---|
HbA1c | ≥ 6.5% (≥ 48 mmol/mol) | 5.7–6.4% (39–47 mmol/mol) |
Fasting glucose | ≥ 126 mg/dL | 100–125 mg/dL |
2h glucose | ≥ 200 mg/dL | 140–199 mg/dL |
Random glucose with classic symptoms | ≥ 200 mg/dL | Not available |
Threshold for diagnosis of diabetes is based on the relationship between results of glucose tolerance tests, fasting glucose or HbA1c and complications such as retinal problems.<ref name=Will2011/> A fasting or random blood sugar is preferred over the glucose tolerance test, as they are more convenient for people.<ref name=Will2011/> HbA1c has the advantages that fasting is not required and results are more stable but has the disadvantage that the test is more costly than measurement of blood glucose.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It is estimated that 20% of people with diabetes in the United States do not realize that they have the disease.<ref name=Will2011/>
Type 2 diabetes is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.<ref name="Pathologic Basis of Disease">Template:Cite book</ref> This is in contrast to type 1 diabetes in which there is an absolute insulin deficiency due to destruction of islet cells in the pancreas and gestational diabetes that is a new onset of high blood sugars associated with pregnancy.<ref name="Green2011"/> Type 1 and type 2 diabetes can typically be distinguished based on the presenting circumstances.<ref name=Expert2009/> If the diagnosis is in doubt antibody testing may be useful to confirm type 1 diabetes and C-peptide levels may be useful to confirm type 2 diabetes,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> with C-peptide levels normal or high in type 2 diabetes, but low in type 1 diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
ScreeningEdit
{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} Universal screening for diabetes in people without risk factors or symptoms is not recommended.<ref name="USPSTF2021">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended in 2021 screening for type 2 diabetes in adults aged 35 to 70 years old who are overweight (i.e. BMI over 25) or have obesity.<ref name="USPSTF2021"/> For people of Asian descent, screening is recommended if they have a BMI over 23.<ref name="USPSTF2021"/> Screening at an earlier age may be considered in people with a family history of diabetes; some ethnic groups, including Hispanics, African Americans, and Native Americans; a history of gestational diabetes; polycystic ovary syndrome.<ref name="USPSTF2021"/> Screening can be repeated every 3 years.<ref name="USPSTF2021"/>
The American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommended in 2024 screening in all adults from the age of 35 years.<ref name="ADA2024ch2">Template:Cite journal</ref> ADA also recommends screening in adults of all ages with a BMI over 25 (or over 23 in Asian Americans) with another risk factor: first-degree relative with diabetes, ethnicity at high risk for diabetes, blood pressure ≥130/80 mmHg or on therapy for hypertension, history of cardiovascular disease, physical inactivity, polycystic ovary syndrome or severe obesity.<ref name="ADA2024ch2"/> ADA recommends repeat screening every 3 years at minimum.<ref name="ADA2024ch2"/> ADA recommends yearly tests in people with prediabetes.<ref name="ADA2024ch2"/> People with previous gestational diabetes or pancreatitis are also recommended screening.<ref name="ADA2024ch2"/>
There is no evidence that screening changes the risk of death and any benefit of screening on adverse effects, incidence of type 2 diabetes, HbA1c or socioeconomic effects are not clear.<ref name=Selph_et_al-2015>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In the UK, NICE guidelines suggest taking action to prevent diabetes for people with a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or more.<ref name="NIHR2022"/> For people of Black African, African-Caribbean, South Asian and Chinese descent the recommendation to start prevention starts at the BMI of 27,5.<ref name="NIHR2022">Template:Cite journal</ref> A study based on a large sample of people in England suggest even lower BMIs for certain ethnic groups for the start of prevention, for example 24 in South Asian and 21 in Bangladeshi populations.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
PreventionEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Onset of type 2 diabetes can be delayed or prevented through proper nutrition and regular exercise.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Hemmingsen2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> Intensive lifestyle measures may reduce the risk by over half.<ref name=AFP09/><ref name=Schellenberg2013>Template:Cite journal</ref> The benefit of exercise occurs regardless of the person's initial weight or subsequent weight loss.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of diabetes by about 28%.<ref name=BMJ2016>Template:Cite journal</ref> Evidence for the benefit of dietary changes alone, however, is limited,<ref name="Hemmingsen2017"/> with some evidence for a diet high in green leafy vegetables<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and some for limiting the intake of sugary drinks.<ref name="Schwing">Template:Cite journal</ref> There is an association between higher intake of sugar-sweetened fruit juice and diabetes, but no evidence of an association with 100% fruit juice.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A 2019 review found evidence of benefit from dietary fiber.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
A 2017 review found that, long term, lifestyle changes decreased the risk by 28%, while medication does not reduce risk after withdrawal.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> While low vitamin D levels are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, correcting the levels by supplementing vitamin D3 does not improve that risk.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In those with prediabetes, diet in combination with physical activity delays or reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes, according to a 2017 Cochrane review.<ref name="Hemmingsen2017"/> In those with prediabetes, metformin may delay or reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared to diet and exercise or a placebo intervention, but not compared to intensive diet and exercise, and there was not enough data on outcomes such as mortality and diabetic complications and health-related quality of life, according to a 2019 Cochrane review.<ref name="Madsen2019">Template:Cite journal</ref> In those with prediabetes, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors such as acarbose may delay or reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes when compared to placebo, however there was no conclusive evidence that acarbose improved cardiovascular mortality or cardiovascular events, according to a 2018 Cochrane review.<ref name="Moelands2018">Template:Cite journal</ref> In those with prediabetes, pioglitazone may delay or reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared to placebo or no intervention, but no difference was seen compared to metformin, and data were missing on mortality and complications and quality of life, according to a 2020 Cochrane review.<ref name="Ipsen2020">Template:Cite journal</ref> In those with prediabetes, there was insufficient data to draw any conclusions on whether SGLT2 inhibitors may delay or reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, according to a 2016 Cochrane review.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
ManagementEdit
Template:Further Management of type 2 diabetes focuses on lifestyle interventions, lowering other cardiovascular risk factors, and maintaining blood glucose levels in the normal range.<ref name=AFP09>Template:Cite journal</ref> Self-monitoring of blood glucose for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes may be used in combination with education,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> although the benefit of self-monitoring in those not using multi-dose insulin is questionable.<ref name=AFP09/> In those who do not want to measure blood levels, measuring urine levels may be done.<ref name="NICE2009Self">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Managing other cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, high cholesterol, and microalbuminuria, improves a person's life expectancy.<ref name=AFP09/> Decreasing the systolic blood pressure to less than 140 mmHg is associated with a lower risk of death and better outcomes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Intensive blood pressure management (less than 130/80 mmHg) as opposed to standard blood pressure management (less than 140–160 mmHg systolic to 85–100 mmHg diastolic) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Intensive blood sugar lowering (HbA1c < 6%) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering (HbA1c of 7–7.9%) does not appear to change mortality.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of 7 to 8% or a fasting glucose of less than 7.2 mmol/L (130 mg/dL); however these goals may be changed after professional clinical consultation, taking into account particular risks of hypoglycemia and life expectancy.<ref name="ADA2024ch6">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Hypoglycemia is associated with adverse outcomes in older people with type 2 diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Despite guidelines recommending that intensive blood sugar control be based on balancing immediate harms with long-term benefits, many people – for example people with a life expectancy of less than nine years who will not benefit, are over-treated.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
It is recommended that all people with type 2 diabetes get regular eye examinations.<ref name=Green2011/> There is moderate evidence suggesting that treating gum disease by scaling and root planing results in an improvement in blood sugar levels for people with diabetes.<ref name="Simpson2015">Template:Cite journal</ref>
LifestyleEdit
ExerciseEdit
A proper diet and regular exercise are foundations of diabetic care,<ref name=Vij2010/> with one review indicating that a greater amount of exercise improved outcomes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Regular exercise may improve blood sugar control, decrease body fat content, and decrease blood lipid levels.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
DietEdit
Template:Further Calorie restriction to promote weight loss is generally recommended.<ref name="Diet09">Template:Cite journal</ref> Around 80 percent of obese people with type 2 diabetes achieve complete remission with no need for medication if they sustain a weight loss of at least Template:Convert,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but most patients are not able to achieve or sustain significant weight loss.<ref name="UpToDate" /> Even modest weight loss can produce significant improvements in glycemic control and reduce the need for medication.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Several diets may be effective such as the DASH diet, Mediterranean diet, low-fat diet, or monitored carbohydrate diets such as a low carbohydrate diet.<ref name="ADA2024ch5">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other recommendations include emphasizing intake of fruits, vegetables, reduced saturated fat and low-fat dairy products, and with a macronutrient intake tailored to the individual, to distribute calories and carbohydrates throughout the day.<ref name="ADA2024ch5"/><ref name="ADA2013-nutrition">Template:Cite journal</ref> A 2021 review showed that consumption of tree nuts (walnuts, almonds, and hazelnuts) reduced fasting blood glucose in diabetic people.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:As of, there is insufficient data to recommend nonnutritive sweeteners, which may help reduce caloric intake.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> An elevated intake of microbiota-accessible carbohydrates can help reducing the effects of T2D.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Viscous fiber supplements may be useful in those with diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Culturally appropriate education may help people with type 2 diabetes control their blood sugar levels for up to 24 months.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There is not enough evidence to determine if lifestyle interventions affect mortality in those who already have type 2 diabetes.<ref name="Schellenberg2013" />
Stress managementEdit
Although psychological stress is recognized as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes,<ref name=Will2011/> the effect of stress management interventions on disease progression are not established.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A Cochrane review is under way to assess the effects of mindfulness‐based interventions for adults with type 2 diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
MedicationsEdit
Blood sugar controlEdit
Template:See also There are several classes of diabetes medications available. Metformin is generally recommended as a first line treatment as there is some evidence that it decreases mortality;<ref name="Ann2016" /><ref name="AFP09" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> however, this conclusion is questioned.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Metformin should not be used in those with severe kidney or liver problems.<ref name="Vij2010" /> The American Diabetes Association and European Association for the Study of Diabetes recommend using a GLP-1 receptor agonist or SGLT2 inhibitor as the first-line treatment in patients who have or are at high risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, heart failure, or chronic kidney disease.<ref name=ADA2022EASD>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="ADA2024ch9">Template:Cite journal</ref> The higher cost of these drugs compared to metformin has limited their use.<ref name="UpToDate">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Other classes of medications include: sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists.<ref name=ADA2024ch9/> A 2018 review found that SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 agonists, but not DPP-4 inhibitors, were associated with lower mortality than placebo or no treatment.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Rosiglitazone, a thiazolidinedione, has not been found to improve long-term outcomes even though it improves blood sugar levels.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Additionally it is associated with increased rates of heart disease and death.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Injections of insulin may either be added to oral medication or used alone.<ref name=AFP09/> Most people do not initially need insulin.<ref name=Green2011/> When it is used, a long-acting formulation is typically added at night, with oral medications being continued.<ref name=Vij2010/><ref name=AFP09/> Doses are then increased to effect (blood sugar levels being well controlled).<ref name=AFP09/> When nightly insulin is insufficient, twice daily insulin may achieve better control.<ref name=Vij2010/> The long acting insulins glargine and detemir are equally safe and effective,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and do not appear much better than NPH insulin, but as they are significantly more expensive, they are not cost effective as of 2010.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In those who are pregnant, insulin is generally the treatment of choice.<ref name=Vij2010/>
Blood pressure loweringEdit
Many international guidelines recommend blood pressure treatment targets that are lower than 140/90 mmHg for people with diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, there is only limited evidence regarding what the lower targets should be. A 2016 systematic review found potential harm to treating to targets lower than 140 mmHg,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and a subsequent review in 2019 found no evidence of additional benefit from blood pressure lowering to between 130 and 140 mmHg, although there was an increased risk of adverse events.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> 2023 European Society of Cardiology guidelines recommend systolic blood pressure lowering to 130 mmHg in most people with diabetes.<ref name=ESC2023>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In people with diabetes and hypertension and either albuminuria or chronic kidney disease, an inhibitor of the renin-angiotensin system (such as an ACE inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker) to reduce the risks of progression of kidney disease and present cardiovascular events.<ref name="ADA2024ch11">Template:Cite journal</ref> There is some evidence that angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) are superior to other inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system such as angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> or aliskiren in preventing cardiovascular disease.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Although a 2016 review found similar effects of ACEIs and ARBs on major cardiovascular and renal outcomes.<ref name="PLOS2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> There is no evidence that combining ACEIs and ARBs provides additional benefits.<ref name="PLOS2016" />
OtherEdit
The use of statins in diabetes to prevent cardiovascular disease should be considered after evaluating the person's total risk for cardiovascular disease.<ref name="ADA2024ch10">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The use of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) to prevent cardiovascular disease in diabetes is controversial.<ref name="ADA2024ch10"/> Aspirin is recommended in people with previous cardiovascular disease, however routine use of aspirin has not been found to improve outcomes in uncomplicated diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Aspirin as primary prevention may have greater risk than benefit, but could be considered in people aged 50 to 70 with another significant cardiovascular risk factor and low risk of bleeding after information about possible risks and benefits as part of shared-decision making.<ref name="ADA2024ch10"/>
Vitamin D supplementation to people with type 2 diabetes may improve markers of insulin resistance and HbA1c.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Sharing their electronic health records with people who have type 2 diabetes helps them to reduce their blood sugar levels. It is a way of helping people understand their own health condition and involving them actively in its management.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
SurgeryEdit
Weight loss surgery in those who are obese is an effective measure to treat diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Many are able to maintain normal blood sugar levels with little or no medication following surgery<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and long-term mortality is decreased.<ref name=Schum2009/> There however is some short-term mortality risk of less than 1% from the surgery.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The body mass index cutoffs for when surgery is appropriate are not yet clear.<ref name=Schum2009>Template:Cite journal</ref> It is recommended that this option be considered in those who are unable to get both their weight and blood sugar under control.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
EpidemiologyEdit
The International Diabetes Federation estimates nearly 537 million people lived with diabetes worldwide in 2021,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> 90–95% of whom have type 2 diabetes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Diabetes is common both in the developed and the developing world.<ref name=Will2011/>
Some ethnic groups such as South Asians, Pacific Islanders, Latinos, and Native Americans are at particularly high risk of developing type 2 diabetes.<ref name=Vij2010/> Type 2 diabetes in normal weight individuals represents 60 to 80 percent of all cases in some Asian countries. The mechanism causing diabetes in non-obese individuals is poorly understood.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Rates of diabetes in 1985 were estimated at 30 million, increasing to 135 million in 1995 and 217 million in 2005.<ref name=Epi2006/> This increase is believed to be primarily due to the global population aging, a decrease in exercise, and increasing rates of obesity.<ref name=Epi2006/> Traditionally considered a disease of adults, type 2 diabetes is increasingly diagnosed in children in parallel with rising obesity rates.<ref name=Will2011/> The five countries with the greatest number of people with diabetes as of 2000 are India having 31.7 million, China 20.8 million, the United States 17.7 million, Indonesia 8.4 million, and Japan 6.8 million.<ref name = "Wild 2004">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is recognized as a global epidemic by the World Health Organization.<ref name=WHO2024>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
HistoryEdit
Template:Further Diabetes is one of the first diseases described<ref name=Rip2011/> with an Egyptian manuscript from Template:Circa BCE mentioning "too great emptying of the urine."<ref name=History2010/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The first described cases are believed to be of type 1 diabetes.<ref name=History2010>Template:Cite book</ref> Indian physicians around the same time identified the disease and classified it as madhumeha or honey urine noting that the urine would attract ants.<ref name=History2010/> The term "diabetes" or "to pass through" was first used in 230 BCE by the Greek Apollonius Memphites.<ref name=History2010/> The disease was rare during the time of the Roman Empire with Galen commenting that he had only seen two cases during his career.<ref name=History2010/>
Type 1 and type 2 diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka in 400–500 CE with type 1 associated with youth and type 2 with being overweight.<ref name=History2010/> Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century when the Canadians Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered insulin in 1921 and 1922.<ref name=History2010/> This was followed by the development of the longer acting NPH insulin in the 1940s.<ref name=History2010/>
In 1916, Elliot Joslin proposed that in people with diabetes, periods of fasting are helpful.<ref name="Koutroumpakis2019">Template:Cite journal</ref> Subsequent research has supported this, and weight loss is a first line treatment in type 2 diabetes.<ref name="Koutroumpakis2019" />
ResearchEdit
In 2020, Diabetes Severity Score (DISSCO) was developed which is a tool that could be better than HbA1c identify if a person's condition is declining.<ref name=ToolsPredictRisk/><ref name="DISSCO2020">Template:Cite journal</ref> It uses a computer algorithm to analyze data from anonymized electronic patient records and produces a score based on 34 indicators.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="DISSCO2020"/>
Stem cellsEdit
Template:See also In April 2024 scientists reported the first case of reversion of type 2 diabetes by use of stem cells in a 59-year-old man treated in 2021 who has since remained insulin-free.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Replication in more patients and evidence over longer periods would be needed before considering this treatment as a possible cure.
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
- IDF Diabetes Atlas 2021
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- ADA's Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2025
Template:Medical condition classification and resources Template:Disease of the pancreas and glucose metabolism Template:Diabetes Template:Authority control