Volcanism of Iceland
- The volcano system in Iceland that started activity on August 17, 2014, and ended on February 27, 2015, is Bárðarbunga.
- The volcano in Iceland that erupted in May 2011 is Grímsvötn.
RR, Reykjanes Ridge; RVB, Reykjanes Volcanic Belt; WVZ, West Volcanic Zone; MIB, Mid-Iceland Belt; SISZ, South Iceland Seismic Zone; EVZ, East Volcanic Zone; SIVZ, South Iceland Volcanic Zone; NVZ, North Volcanic Zone; TFZ, Tjörnes Fracture Zone; KR, Kolbeinsey Ridge; ÖVB, Öræfajökul Volcanic Belt; SVB, Snæfellsnes Volcanic Belt.
Template:Location map+ Template:Maplink Iceland experiences frequent volcanic activity, due to its location both on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary, and being over a hotspot. Nearly thirty volcanoes are known to have erupted in the Holocene epoch; these include Eldgjá, source of the largest lava eruption in human history. Some of the various eruptions of lava, gas and ash have been both destructive of property and deadly to life over the years, as well as disruptive to local and European air travel.
Volcanic systems and volcanic zones of IcelandEdit
Holocene volcanism in Iceland is mostly to be found in the Neovolcanic Zone, comprising the Reykjanes volcanic belt (RVB), the West volcanic zone (WVZ), the Mid-Iceland belt (MIB), the East volcanic zone (EVZ) and the North volcanic zone (NVZ). Two lateral volcanic zones play a minor role: Öræfi volcanic belt (ÖVB also known as Öræfajökull volcanic system) and Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB).<ref>Thor Thordarson, Armann Hoskuldsson: Iceland. Classic geology of Europe 3. Harpenden 2002, p. 9</ref> Outside of the main island are the Reykjanes Ridge (RR), as part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge to the south-west and the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR) to the north. Two transform zones are connecting these volcano-tectonic zones: the South Iceland seismic zone (SISZ) in the south of Iceland and the Tjörnes transform zone (TFZ) in the north.
The island has around 30 active volcanic systems. Within each are volcano-tectonic fissure systems and many, but not all of them, also have at least one central volcano (mostly in the form of a stratovolcano, sometimes of a shield volcano with a magma chamber underneath). Several classifications of the systems exist, for example there is one of 30 systems,<ref name=Andrews2008>Template:Cite thesis</ref>Template:Rp and one of 34 systems, with the later currently being used in Iceland itself.<ref name=EIV>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There are 23 central volcanoes using the definition that they: erupt frequently; extrude either basaltic, intermediate or felsic lavas; have an associated shallow crustal magma chamber, and are often associated with collapse caldera or fissure systems.<ref name=Andrews2008/>Template:Rp Shield volcanoes, as the term is used in the Iceland context, tend to erupt only once, so have monogenetic characteristics. However many shield volcanoes outside Iceland are associated with oceanic island volcanism such as in Hawaii where they have been built up over many eruptions.<ref name=Andrews2008/>Template:Rp Fissure vents in Iceland tend to produce calmer effusive eruptions, but can be associated with large volumes of lava (flood basalt events) and some have had prolonged eruptions with numerous eruptive episodes, lasting for years.<ref name=Andrews2008/>Template:Rp
Up to 2008, thirteen of the volcanic systems had hosted eruptions since the settlement of Iceland in AD 874.<ref name=Thordarson2008>Template:Cite journal</ref> Nearly thirty volcanoes are known to have erupted in the Holocene epoch and so are active.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Of these active volcanic systems, the most active is Grímsvötn.<ref name=Gudmundsson2008>Template:Cite journal</ref> Over the past 500 years, Iceland's volcanoes have produced a third of the total global lava output.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Current productivity, which is known to be cyclical, has been estimated to be between Template:Cvt per year which is higher than the output rate of the Hawaiian volcanoes, and would be double or even triple this figure if intrusive volumes are included.<ref name=Thordarson2008/>Template:Rp
Volcano tectonicsEdit
The types of eruptions most likely in a particular Icelandic volcanic system or zone are now understood. Earthquakes and volcanism have patterns in time and place that can be combined into a consistent tectonic process that is explained by the geological deformation of Iceland. In summary in Iceland there are four main types of tectonic zones:<ref name=Sæmundsson2020>Template:Cite journalTemplate:Rp</ref>
- Spreading zones of rifting and volcanism producing the predominant Iceland tholeiitic basaltic crust
- Fracture zones connecting offset branches of the spreading zones which includes the SISZ
- Trans-tensional zones with transform faulting and spreading of which are the RVB and TFZ
- Flank zones with stratovolcanoes and minor rifting with alkalic to transitional volcanic rocks over the crust
These tectonic zones result from the interaction of combination of the spreading activity of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which is spreading in a general east and west direction while the mantle plume activity that results in the hotspot, has been migrating over at least the last 25 million years in a west to slightly south-east direction.<ref name=Andrews2008/>Template:Rp
GeologyEdit
MorphologyEdit
Fissure vents are found predominantly in what are termed fissure swarms (a combination of tectonic related fissures and faults) that are also associated with crater rows and smaller cinder or spatter cones.<ref name=EIVREY>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Rp</ref> Where such eruptions interact with water the eruptions become more explosive and these phreatomagmatic eruptions produce tephra and possibly maars and tuff rings or cones.<ref name=Sæmundsson2020/><ref name=EIVREY/>
CompositionEdit
The composition of the lava reflects the tectonic factors above and are consistent with the influence of the hotspot so the trend is for ocean island basalts (OIB) type to predominate over mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB) which are only found in the north of the NVZ.<ref name=Jakobsson2008>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp The compositional series are thus tholeiitic basalt, transitional alkalic basalts and alkalic (felsic).<ref name=Jakobsson2008/>Template:Rp
Large extrusive, predominantly tholeiitic basaltic lava fields and shields with theoleiitic lava are the predominant material erupted and are found in the RVB, WVZ, MIB, EVZ and NVZ.<ref name=EIV/> They are associated with divergence tectonics of the ridge plate boundaries.<ref name=Sæmundsson2020/>Template:Rp Central volcanoes, with associated fissure swarms are typical, except in the RVB. Hengill is the only active central volcano in the far east of the RVB, and this is likely to be because here a triple junction exists, resulting in a volcano with some rhyolytic and dacite components due to the complexity of its rift propagation formation.<ref name=Kristján2019>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp The island of Eldey off the south-west of the RVB has similar geological formations to the RVB but has a basalt composition with tholeiites and picrites.<ref name=EIVELD>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Rp</ref> Hofsjökull, a large volcano with a caldera and rhyolite lavas in the MIB has explosive eruption potential but has not erupted underneath its ice cover for several thousand years and its companion Kerlingarfjöll for even longer.<ref name=Grönvold2019>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Arc volcanism has been thought to be occurring in the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt with alkaline magma series volcanism in the stratovolcanoes such as Snæfellsjökull which usually erupt effusive basaltic lava but can have infrequent explosive silicic eruptions followed by extrusion of intermediate composition lava.<ref name=Jóhannesson2019>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However the modelling of the processes involved is incomplete and almost certainly involves primarily fractional crystallization of primary basaltic magma with limited input from pre-existing crustal material as is the case in arc volcanism.<ref name=Banik2021>Template:Cite journal</ref> The ÖVB is represented by the Öræfajökull (Hnappafellsjökull) stratovolcano which has a history of violent rhyolite to alkali basalt eruptions with tephra volumes up to Template:Cvt and accompanying jökulhlaup.<ref name=EIVORA>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The island Vestmannaeyjar volcano to the south east of Iceland has in its recent activity formed the island of Surtsey and cones such as Eldfell on Heimaey. It is the southern tip of the EVZ propagating rift in what is an off rift region called the South Iceland Volcanic Zone (SIVZ),<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and the older alkaline basalts were alkali olivine and more recent mugearite in composition.<ref name=EIVVES>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Rp</ref> The basalts of the southern EVZ on land are rarely silicic but the volcanoes can have explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Rp</ref>
Overall the surface area of post glacial erupted rocks of Iceland is 92% basalt, 4% basaltic andesites, 1% andesites, and 3% dacite-rhyolites.<ref name=Sigmundsson2020>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Important eruptionsEdit
See also : List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland
Largest Holocene eruptionsEdit
Due to incomplete surveys, which also need to be confined to subaerial eruptions and not include igneous intrusions, the accumulative amounts of dense-rock equivalent erupted in Iceland will be underestimated.<ref name=Thordarson2008/> The amounts known are some of the most significant contributions to recent eruptive volumes on Earth.<ref name=Thordarson2008/> Since the last ice age 91% of the magma erupted in Iceland has been mafic, 6% intermediate in composition and 3% silicic.<ref name=Thordarson2008/>Template:Rp The number of eruptions estimated in this 11,700 odd year period can only be an approxiamate figure,Template:Efn but about three to four explosive ones occur for every purely effusive one.<ref name=Thordarson2008/>Template:Rp
HeklaEdit
Hekla has erupted more than 20 times in recorded history. It was known to medieval Europeans as the Gate of Hell; that reputation persisted into the 19th century.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Laki/Skaftáreldar 1783–1784Edit
The most deadly volcanic eruption of Iceland's history was the so-called Skaftáreldar (fires of Skaftá) in 1783–1784.<ref name=Thordarson2003>Template:Cite journalTemplate:Rp</ref> The eruption was in the crater row Lakagígar (craters of Laki) southwest of Vatnajökull glacier. The craters are a part of a larger volcanic system with the subglacial Grímsvötn as a central volcano. Roughly a fifth of the Icelandic population died because of the eruption.<ref name=Thordarson2003 /> Most died not because of the lava flow or other direct effects of the eruption but from indirect effects, including changes in climate and illnesses in livestock in the following years caused by the ash and poisonous gases from the eruption.<ref name=Thordarson2003 /> The eruption resulted in the second largest basaltic lava flow from a single eruption in historic times.<ref name=Thordarson2003E>Template:Cite journalTemplate:Rp</ref>
Eldfell 1973Edit
Eldfell is a volcanic cone on the east side of the island of Heimaey which formed during an eruption in January 1973.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The eruption happened without warning, causing the island's population of about 5,300 people to evacuate on fishing boats within a few hours. Importantly, the progress of lava into the harbour was slowed by manual spraying of seawater. One person died, and the eruption resulted in the destruction of homes and property on the island.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Rp
Eyjafjallajökull 2010Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The eruption under Eyjafjallajökull in April 2010 caused extreme disruption to air travel across western and northern Europe over a period of six days in April 2010. About 20 countries closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it affected approximately 10 million travellers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The eruption had a VEI of 4, the largest known from Eyjafjallajökull.<ref>Eyjafjallajökull. Eruptive History. Global Volcanism Program. Accessed 19 August 2020.</ref> Several previous eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have been followed soon afterwards by eruptions of the larger volcano Katla, but after the 2010 eruption, no activity occurred at Katla.<ref name="CIV1">Katla. Detailed description. In: Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes. Accessed 19 August 2020</ref>
Grímsvötn 2011Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The eruption in May 2011 at Grímsvötn under the Vatnajökull glacier sent thousands of tonnes of ash into the sky in a few days, raising concerns of the potential for travel chaos across northern Europe although only about 900 flights were initially disrupted.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Holuhraun 2014–2015Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Bárðarbunga is a stratovolcano and is roughly Template:Convert above sea level in central Iceland, i.e. in the northern edge of Vatnajökull.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This makes it the second highest mountain in Iceland.
Holuhraun is an older lavafield situated Template:Convert north-east of Bárðarbunga, Template:Convert south of Askja (last eruption 1961), at an altitude of about Template:Convert. Here the eruption started on August 17, 2014, and lasted for 180 days.<ref name=Gudmundsson2016>Template:Cite journal</ref> The 2014–2015 eruption was Iceland's largest in 230 years.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Following a major earthquake swarm, multiple lava fountain eruptions began in Holuhraun.<ref name="Ljós norðan jökuls Töldu annað gos hafið">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The lava flow rate was between Template:Convert and came from a dyke over Template:Convert long.<ref>See e.g. http://earthice.hi.is/bardarbunga_2014 Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland:Bardarbunga 2014</ref><ref>See also Icelandic media RÚV: http://www.ruv.is/frett/seismic-activity-still-strong Received Sept. 24, 2014</ref> An ice-filled subsidence bowl over Template:Convert in area and up to Template:Convert deep formed as well.<ref name=Gudmundsson2016 /> There was very limited ash output from this eruption. The primary concern with this eruption was the large plumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere which adversely affected breathing conditions across Iceland, depending on wind direction. The volcanic cloud was also transported toward Western Europe in September 2014.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Fagradalsfjall 2021–2022Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Following a three-week period of increased seismic activity, an eruption fissure developed near Fagradalsfjall,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> a mountain on the Reykjanes Peninsula. Lava flow from a 200-meter fissure was first discovered by an Icelandic Coast Guard helicopter on March 19, 2021, in the Geldingadalur area near Grindavík, and within hours the fissure had grown to Template:Convert in length.<ref>Icelandic Media RÚV: https://www.ruv.is/frett/2021/03/19/eldgos-hafid-vid-fagradalsfjall. Retrieved 19 March 2021.</ref>
Another eruption, very similar to the 2021 eruption, began on 3 August 2022,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and ceased on 21 August 2022.
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Litli-Hrútur 2023Edit
On 10 July 2023 at 16:40 UTC, a fissure eruption began adjacent to the summit of Litli-Hrútur.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Sundhnúkur 2023–2025Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} On December 18, 2023, at 22:17 near Hagafell, the volcano began a fissure eruption.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In January, 2024 lava from this eruption destroyed 3 houses in the nearby town of Grindavík.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Structure of lava fieldsEdit
The smooth flowing basaltic lava pāhoehoe is known in Icelandic as helluhraun {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name=Islandsbok-Liden group=Islandsbok>Template:Cite book</ref> It forms smooth surfaces that are quite easy to cross. More viscous lava forms ʻaʻā flows, known in Icelandic as apalhraun {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref name=Islandsbok-Liden group=Islandsbok>Template:Cite book</ref> The loose, broken, sharp, spiny surface of an ʻaʻā flow makes hiking across it difficult, slow and dangerous, it is easy to stick a foot into a hole and break a leg.
See alsoEdit
- Geography of Iceland
- Geology of Iceland
- Geological deformation of Iceland
- List of volcanoes in Iceland
- List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland
- Geothermal power in Iceland
- Geology of Reykjanes Peninsula
- Surtsey
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
Non-English referencesEdit
External linksEdit
- Photos of the Grímsvötn (2004) and Eyjafjallajökull (2010) eruptions (Fred Kamphues)
- Map: active volcanoes of the world
- Icelandic Video Archive
- Volcano Discovery: Iceland
- List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland since 1900, Icelandic Met Office