Mongolian language

Template:Short description {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other Template:Contains special characters

MongolianTemplate:NoteTag is the principal language of the Mongolic language family that originated in the Mongolian Plateau. It is spoken by ethnic Mongols and other closely related Mongolic peoples who are native to modern Mongolia and surrounding parts of East, Central and North Asia. Mongolian is the official language of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia and a recognized language of Xinjiang and Qinghai.

The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5–6 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the ethnic Mongol residents of the Inner Mongolia of China.<ref name="e28|mon">Template:E28</ref> In Mongolia, Khalkha Mongolian is predominant, and is currently written in both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script. In Inner Mongolia, it is dialectally more diverse and written in the traditional Mongolian script. However, Mongols in both countries often use the Latin script for convenience on the Internet.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In the discussion of grammar to follow, the variety of Mongolian treated is the standard written Khalkha formalized in the writing conventions and in grammar as taught in schools, but much of it is also valid for vernacular (spoken) Khalkha and other Mongolian dialects, especially Chakhar Mongolian.

Some classify several other Mongolic languages like Buryat and Oirat as varieties of Mongolian, but this classification is not in line with the current international standard.

Mongolian is a language with vowel harmony and a complex syllabic structure compared to other Mongolic languages, allowing clusters of up to three consonants syllable-finally. It is a typical agglutinative language that relies on suffix chains in the verbal and nominal domains. While there is a basic word order, subject–object–verb, ordering among noun phrases is relatively free, as grammatical roles are indicated by a system of about eight grammatical cases. There are five voices. Verbs are marked for voice, aspect, tense and epistemic modality/evidentiality. In sentence linking, a special role is played by converbs.

Modern Mongolian evolved from Middle Mongol, the language spoken in the Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries. In the transition, a major shift in the vowel-harmony paradigm occurred, long vowels developed, the case system changed slightly, and the verbal system was restructured. Mongolian is related to the extinct Khitan language. It was believed that Mongolian was related to Turkic, Tungusic, Korean and Japonic languages but this view is now seen as obsolete by a majority of (but not all) comparative linguists. These languages have been grouped under the Altaic language family and contrasted with the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area. However, instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed that Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages form a language Sprachbund, rather than common origin.<ref name=clauson56>Template:Cite journal</ref> Mongolian literature is well attested in written form from the 13th century but has earlier Mongolic precursors in the literature of the Khitan and other Xianbei peoples. The Bugut inscription dated to 584 CE and the Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi dated to 604–620 CE appear to be the oldest substantial Mongolic or Para-Mongolic texts discovered.

Name

Writers such as Owen Lattimore referred to Mongolian as "the Mongol language".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

History

File:Phagspa imperial edict dragon year.jpg

Edict of Yesün Temür Khan, Emperor Taiding of Yuan (1328). Only the 'Phags-pa script retains the complete Middle Mongol vowel system.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 111.</ref>

The earliest surviving Mongolian text may be the Template:Ill, a report on sports composed in Mongolian script on stone, which is most often dated at 1224 or 1225.<ref>Garudi (2002): 7, but see Rachewiltz (1976)</ref> The Mongolian-Armenian wordlist of 55 words compiled by Kirakos of Gandzak (13th century) is the first written record of Mongolian words.<ref>Djahukyan (1991): 2368</ref> From the 13th to the 15th centuries, Mongolian language texts were written in four scripts (not counting some vocabulary written in Western scripts): Uyghur Mongolian (UM) script (an adaptation of the Uyghur alphabet ), 'Phags-pa script (Ph) (used in decrees), Chinese (SM) (The Secret History of the Mongols), and Arabic (AM) (used in dictionaries).<ref>Rybatzki (2003b): 58.</ref> While they are the earliest texts available, these texts have come to be called "Middle Mongol" in scholarly practice.<ref>See Rachewiltz 1999 for a critical review of the terminology used in periodizations of Mongolic; Svantesson et al. (2005): 98–99 attempt a revision of this terminology for the early period.</ref> The documents in UM script show some distinct linguistic characteristics and are therefore often distinguished by terming their language "Preclassical Mongolian".<ref>Rybatzki (2003b): 57.</ref>

The Yuan dynasty referred to the Mongolian language in Chinese as "Guoyu" (Template:Lang-zh), which means "National language", a term also used by other non-Han dynasties to refer to their languages such as the Manchu language during the Qing dynasty, the Jurchen language during the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), the Khitan language during the Liao dynasty, and the Xianbei language during the Northern Wei period.

The next distinct period is Classical Mongolian, which is dated from the 17th to the 19th century. This is a written language with a high degree of standardization in orthography and syntax that sets it quite apart from the subsequent Modern Mongolian. The most notable documents in this language are the Mongolian Kangyur and Tengyur<ref>Janhunen (2003a): 32.</ref> as well as several chronicles.<ref>Okada (1984)</ref> In 1686, the Soyombo alphabet (Buddhist texts) was created, giving distinctive evidence on early classical Mongolian phonological peculiarities.<ref>Nadmid (1967): 98–102.</ref>

Geographic distribution

Template:See also Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken (but not always written) by nearly 3.6 million people (2014 estimate),Template:Sfn and the official provincial language (both spoken and written forms) of Inner Mongolia, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate)Template:Sfn However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in Inner Mongolia has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols so they can benefit from the preferential policies for minorities in education, healthcare, family planning, school admissions, the hiring and promotion, the financing and taxation of businesses, and regional infrastructural support given to ethnic minorities in China.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 2020, the Chinese government required three subjects—language and literature, politics, and history—to be taught in Mandarin in Mongolian-language primary and secondary schools in the Inner Mongolia since September, which caused widespread protests among ethnic Mongol communities.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> These protests were quickly suppressed by the Chinese government.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Mandarin has been deemed the only language of instruction for all subjects as of September 2023.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Classification and varieties

File:MongolicLanguagesGraph.svg

Modern Mongolian's place on the chronological tree of Mongolic languages

Mongolian belongs to the Mongolic languages. The delimitation of the Mongolian language within Mongolic is a much disputed theoretical problem, one whose resolution is impeded by the fact that existing data for the major varieties is not easily arrangeable according to a common set of linguistic criteria. Such data might account for the historical development of the Mongolian dialect continuum, as well as for its sociolinguistic qualities. Though phonological and lexical studies are comparatively well developed,<ref>See especially Rinčjen (1979), Amaržargal (1988), Coloo (1988) and for a general bibliography on Mongolic phonology Svantesson et al. (2005): 218–229.</ref> the basis has yet to be laid for a comparative morphosyntactic study, for example between such highly diverse varieties as Khalkha and Khorchin.<ref>See Ashimura (2002) for a rare piece of research into dialect morphosyntax that shows significant differences between Khalkha and Khorchin.</ref><ref>Janhunen (2003): 189.</ref>

In Juha Janhunen's book titled Mongolian, he groups the Mongolic language family into four distinct linguistic branches:Template:Sfn

• the Dagur branch, made up of just the Dagur language, which is spoken in the northeast area of Manchuria in China, specifically in Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner of Hulunbuir, and in Meilisi Daur District of Qiqihar, Heilongjiang;
• the Moghol branch, made up of just the Moghol language, spoken in Afghanistan, and is possibly extinct;
• the Shirongolic (or Southern Mongolic) branch, made up of roughly seven languages, which are spoken in the Amdo region of Tibet;
• the Common Mongolic (or Central Mongolic) branch, made up of roughly six language varieties, to which Mongolian proper belongs.

The Common Mongolic branch is grouped in the following way:Template:Sfn

• Khalkha ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is spoken in Mongolia, but some dialects (e.g. Cahar) are also spoken in the Inner Mongolia region of China.
• Khorchin ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is spoken to the east in eastern Inner Mongolia and Manchuria.
• Ordos is spoken to the south, in Ordos City in Inner Mongolia.
• Oirat, is spoken to the west, in Dzungaria.
• Khamnigan ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is spoken in northeast Mongolia and in northwest of Manchuria.
• Buryat ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is spoken to the north, in the Republic of Buryatia of Russia, as well as in the Barga region of Hulun Buir League in Inner Mongolia.

There is no disagreement that the Khalkha dialect of the Mongolian state is Mongolian.<ref>For an exact delimitation of Khalkha, see Amaržargal (1988): 24–25.</ref> However, the status of certain varieties in the Common Mongolic group—whether they are languages distinct from Mongolian or just dialects of it—is disputed. There are at least three such varieties: Oirat (including the Kalmyk variety) and Buryat, both of which are spoken in Russia, Mongolia, and China; and Ordos, spoken around Inner Mongolia's Ordos City.<ref>See Janhunen (ed.) (2003) and Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005) for two classificatory schemes.</ref> The influential classification of Sanžeev (1953) proposed a "Mongolian language" consisting of just the three dialects Khalkha, Chakhar, and Ordos, with Buryat and Oirat judged to be independent languages.<ref>Sanžeev (1953): 27–61, especially 55.</ref> On the other hand, Luvsanvandan (1959) proposed a much broader "Mongolian language" consisting of a Central dialect (Khalkha, Chakhar, Ordos), an Eastern dialect (Kharchin, Khorchin), a Western dialect (Oirat, Kalmyk), and a Northern dialect (consisting of two Buryat varieties).<ref>Quoted from Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005): 167–168.</ref> Additionally, the Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949, states that Mongolian can be classified into four dialects: the Khalkha dialect in the middle, the Horcin-Haracin dialect in the East, Oriat-Hilimag in the west, and Bargu–Buriyad in the north.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Some Western scholars<ref>Janhunen (2003)</ref> propose that the relatively well researched Ordos variety is an independent language due to its conservative syllable structure and phoneme inventory. While the placement of a variety like Alasha,<ref>Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005): 265–266.</ref> which is under the cultural influence of Inner Mongolia but historically tied to Oirat, and of other border varieties like Darkhad would very likely remain problematic in any classification,<ref>Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005): 266 classify Alasha as a variety of Southern Mongolian according to morphological criteria, while Svantesson et al. (2005): 148 classify it as a variety of Oirat according to phonological criteria. For a discussion of opinions on the classification of Darkhad, see Sanžaa and Tujaa (2001): 33–34.</ref> the central problem remains the question of how to classify Chakhar, Khalkha, and Khorchin in relation to each other and in relation to Buryat and Oirat.<ref>Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005): 166–73, 184–195.</ref><ref>Janhunen (2003): 180.</ref> The split of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} into {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before *i and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before all other reconstructed vowels, which is found in Mongolia but not in Inner Mongolia, is often cited as a fundamental distinction,<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 143, Poppe (1955): 110–115.</ref> for example Proto-Mongolic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Khalkha {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Chakhar {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'year' versus Proto-Mongolic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Khalkha {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, Chakhar {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'few'.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2006): 159–160; the difference between the [l]s might just be due to the impossibility of reconstructing something as precise as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for Proto-Mongolic and imprecision or convenience in notation for Chakhar, Dobu (1983).</ref> On the other hand, the split between the past tense verbal suffixes -{{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the Central varieties v. -{{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the Eastern varieties<ref>e.g. bi tegün-i taniǰei I him know.Template:Smallcaps 'I knew him' is accepted and ?Bi öčögedür iregsen rejected by Chuluu (1998): 140, 165; in Khalkha, by contrast, the first sentence would not appear with the meaning attributed to it, while the second is perfectly acceptable.</ref> is usually seen as a merely stochastic difference.<ref>See, for example, Činggeltei (1959). This split is blurred by the school grammar, which treats several dialectal varieties as one coherent grammatical system; e.g. Činggeltei (1979, 1999). This understanding is in turn reflected in the undecided treatment of -{{#invoke:IPA|main}} in research work like Bayančoγtu (2002): 306.</ref>

In Inner Mongolia, official language policy divides the Mongolian language into three dialects: Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia, Oirat, and Barghu-Buryat. The Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia is said to consist of Chakhar, Ordos, Baarin, Khorchin, Kharchin, and Alasha. The authorities have synthesized a literary standard for Mongolian in whose grammar is said to be based on the Standard Mongolian of Inner Mongolia and whose pronunciation is based on the Chakhar dialect as spoken in the Plain Blue Banner.<ref>Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005): 85. "Öbür mongγul ayalγu bol dumdadu ulus-un mongγul kelen-ü saγuri ayalγu bolqu büged dumdadu ulus-un mongγul kelen-ü barimǰiy-a abiy-a ni čaqar aman ayalγun-du saγurilaγsan bayidaγ."</ref> Dialectologically, however, western Mongolian dialects in Inner Mongolia are closer to Khalkha than they are to eastern Mongolian dialects in Inner Mongolia: e.g. Chakhar is closer to Khalkha than to Khorchin.<ref>Janhunen 2003d.</ref>

List of dialects

Juha Janhunen (2003: 179)<ref>Janhunen, Juha (2003). The Mongolic Languages. p. 179. Routledge Language Family Series 5. London: Routledge.</ref> lists the following Mongol dialects, most of which are spoken in Inner Mongolia.

• Tongliao group
  • Horchin
  • Jasagtu
  • Jarut
  • Jalait
  • Dörbet
  • Gorlos
• Juu Uda group
  • Aru Horchin
  • Baarin
  • Ongniut
  • Naiman
  • Aohan
• Josotu group
  • Harachin
  • Tümet
• Ulan cab group
  • Cahar
  • Urat
  • Darhan
  • Muumingan
  • Dörben Küüket
  • Keshigten
• Shilingol group
  • Üdzümüchin
  • Huuchit
  • Abaga
  • Abaganar
  • Sönit
• Outer Mongolian group
  • Halh
  • Hotogoit
  • Darhad
  • Congol
  • Sartul
  • Dariganga

Standard varieties

There are two standard varieties of Mongolian.

Mongolia

Standard Mongolian in the state of Mongolia is based on the northern Khalkha Mongolian dialects, which include the dialect of Ulaanbaatar, and is written in the Mongolian Cyrillic script.<ref name="Svantesson et al. 2005: 9-10">Svantesson et al. (2005): 9-10</ref>

China

Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia is based on the Chakhar Mongolian of the Khalkha dialect group,<ref name="Svantesson et al. 2005: 9-10"/> spoken in the Shuluun Huh/Zhènglán Banner,<ref>Dàobù 1982, p. 2.</ref> and is written in the traditional Mongolian script.

The number of Mongolian speakers in China is still larger than in the state of Mongolia,<ref>Juha Janhunen (Hg.): The Mongolic Languages. London / New York: Routledge, 2003; ISBN 0-7007-1133-3; S. xviii.</ref> where the majority of Mongolians in China speak one of the Khorchin dialects, or rather more than two million of them speak the Khorchin dialect itself as their mother tongue, so that the Khorchin dialect group has about as many speakers as the Khalkha dialect group in the State of Mongolia. Nevertheless, the Chakhar dialect, which today has only about 100,000 native speakers and belongs to the Khalkha dialect group, is the basis of standard Mongolian in China.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 11-12</ref>

Differences

The characteristic differences in the pronunciation of the two standard varieties include the umlauts in Inner Mongolia and the palatalized consonants in Mongolia (see below) as well as the splitting of the Middle Mongol affricates *{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration) and *{{#invoke:IPA|main}} (Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration) into {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) versus {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) in Mongolia:<ref>Mongolian language. In: Christopher P. Atwood: Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File, 2004; ISBN 0-8160-4671-9; S. 373 und Владимирцов 1988 (1929) p. 390; examples harmonized to Template:MongolUnicode / {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 1999 and Template:MongolUnicode / Галсанпунцаг 2004.</ref>

Middle Mongol	Inner Mongolia	Mongolia	Meaning
main}} Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration	blood
main}} Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration	street
main}} Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration	to go
main}} Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] Template:MongolUnicode Template:Transliteration	main}}] {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration	path

Aside from these differences in pronunciation, there are also differences in vocabulary and language use: in the state of Mongolia more loanwords from Russian are being used, while in Inner Mongolia more loanwords from Chinese have been adopted.<ref>Atwood p. 374.</ref>

Phonology

{{#invoke:Listen|main}}

The following description is based primarily on the Khalkha dialect as spoken in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia's capital. The phonologies of other varieties such as Ordos, Khorchin, and even Chakhar, differ considerably.<ref>Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005): 249–384.</ref> This section discusses the phonology of Khalkha Mongolian with subsections on Vowels, Consonants, Phonotactics and Stress.

Vowels

The standard language has seven monophthong vowel phonemes. They are aligned into three vowel harmony groups by a parameter called ATR (advanced tongue root); the groups are −ATR, +ATR, and neutral. This alignment seems to have superseded an alignment according to oral backness. However, some scholars still describe Mongolian as being characterized by a distinction between front vowels and back vowels, and the front vowel spellings 'ö' and 'ü' are still often used in the West to indicate two vowels which were historically front. The Mongolian vowel system also has rounding harmony.

Length is phonemic for vowels, and except short [e], which has merged into short [i],<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> at least in Ulaanbaatar dialect,Template:Sfn each of the other six phonemes occurs both short and long. Phonetically, short {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has become centralised to the central vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

In the following table, the seven vowel phonemes, with their length variants, are arranged and described phonetically. The vowels in the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet are:

Mongolian Cyrillic	IPA	Romanization
а, аа	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPA link]	a, aa
и, ий/ы	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPA link]	i, ii
о, оо	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPA link]	o, oo
ө, өө	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPA link] /Template:IPA link, Template:IPA link/	ö, öö
у, уу	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPA link]	u, uu
ү, үү	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPA link]	ü, üü
э, ээ	[[[:Template:IPA link]], Template:IPA link]	e, ee

	Front		Central		Back
	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long
Close	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Near-Close					Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Close-Mid		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link
Open-mid					Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Open			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link

Khalkha also has four diphthongs: historically {{#invoke:IPA|main}} but are pronounced more like {{#invoke:IPA|main}};<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 22</ref> e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'dog', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'sea', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'to cry', and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'factory'. There are three additional rising diphthongs {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); e.g., {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'individually', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'barracks', and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'necessary'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Allophones

This table below lists vowel allophones (short vowels allophones in non-initial positions are used interchangeably with schwa):<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 1</ref>

Short	Initial positions	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
	Non-initial positions	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
		{{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Long	Initial positions	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
	Non-initial positions	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}

ATR harmony

File:Mongolian vowel harmony Venn diagram.svg

Vowel harmony in Mongolian

Mongolian divides vowels into three groups in a system of vowel harmony:

	+ATR ("front")	−ATR ("back")	Neutral
IPA	main}}	main}}	main}}
Cyrillic	э, ү, ө	а, у, о	и, ы and й
Romanization	e, ü, ö	a, u, o	i

For historical reasons, these have been traditionally labeled as "front" vowels and "back" vowels, as /o/ and /u/ developed from /ø/ and /y/, while /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ developed from /o/ and /u/ in Middle Mongolian. Indeed, in Mongolian romanizations, the vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are often conventionally rendered as Template:Angle bracket and Template:Angle bracket, while the vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are expressed as Template:Angle bracket and Template:Angle bracket. However, for modern Mongolian phonology, it is more appropriate to instead characterize the two vowel-harmony groups by the dimension of tongue root position. There is also one neutral vowel, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, not belonging to either group.

All the vowels in a noncompound word, including all its suffixes, must belong to the same group. If the first vowel is −ATR, then every vowel of the word must be either {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or a −ATR vowel. Likewise, if the first vowel is a +ATR vowel, then every vowel of the word must be either {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or a +ATR vowel. In the case of suffixes, which must change their vowels to conform to different words, two patterns predominate. Some suffixes contain an archiphoneme {{#invoke:IPA|main}} that can be realized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; e.g.

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'household' + {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (instrumental) → {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'by a household'
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'sentry' + {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (instrumental) → {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'by a sentry'

Other suffixes can occur in {{#invoke:IPA|main}} being realized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, in which case all −ATR vowels lead to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and all +ATR vowels lead to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; e.g.

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'to take' + {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (causative) → {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

If the only vowel in the word stem is {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, the suffixes will use the +ATR suffix forms.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 43–50.</ref>

Rounding harmony

Mongolian also has rounding harmony, which does not apply to close vowels. If a stem contains {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), a suffix that is specified for an open vowel will have {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, respectively) as well. However, this process is blocked by the presence of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'came in', but {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'inserted'.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 46–47, 50–51.</ref>

Vowel length

The pronunciation of long and short vowels depends on the syllable's position in the word. In word-initial syllables, there is a phonemic contrast in vowel length. A long vowel has about 208% the length of a short vowel. In word-medial and word-final syllables, formerly long vowels are now only 127% as long as short vowels in initial syllables, but they are still distinct from initial-syllable short vowels. Short vowels in noninitial syllables differ from short vowels in initial syllables by being only 71% as long and by being centralized in articulation. As they are nonphonemic, their position is determined according to phonotactic requirements.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 1–7, 22–24, 73–75.</ref>

Consonants

The following table lists the consonants of Khalkha Mongolian. The consonants enclosed in parentheses occur only in loanwords.<ref>Svantesson et al. 2005: 25–30.</ref> The occurrence of palatalized consonant phonemes, except {{#invoke:IPA|main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, is restricted to words with [−ATR] vowels.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 20–21, where it is actually stated that they are phonemic only in such words; in Svantesson's analysis, [−ATR] corresponds to "pharyngeal" and [+ATR]—to "nonpharyngeal".</ref>

		Labial		Dental		Velar		Uvular
		plain	pal.	plain	pal.	plain	pal.
Nasal		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Plosive	unaspirated	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	aspirated	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)
Affricate	unaspirated			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	aspirated			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Fricative	central	(Template:IPA link)		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	lateral			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Trill				Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Approximant		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link

A rare feature among the world's languages, Mongolian has neither a voiced lateral approximant, such as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, nor the voiceless velar plosive {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; instead, it has a voiced alveolar lateral fricative, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, which is often realized as voiceless {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Karlsson (2005): 17</ref> In word-final position, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (if not followed by a vowel in historical forms) is realized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Aspirated consonants are preaspirated in medial and word-final contexts, devoicing preceding consonants and vowels. Devoiced short vowels are often deleted.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Syllable structure and phonotactics

The maximal syllable is CVVCCC, where the last C is a word-final suffix. A single short vowel rarely appears in syllable-final position. If a word was monosyllabic historically, *CV has become CVV. In native words, the following consonants do not occur word-initially: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is restricted to codas (else it becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} do not occur in codas for historical reasons. For two-consonant clusters, the following restrictions obtain:

• a palatalized consonant can be preceded only by another palatalized consonant or sometimes by {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may precede only {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} does not seem to appear in second position
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} do not occur as first consonant and as second consonant only if preceded by {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or their palatalized counterparts.

Clusters that do not conform to these restrictions will be broken up by an epenthetic nonphonemic vowel in a syllabification that takes place from right to left. For instance, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'two', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'work', and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'neutral' are, phonemically, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} respectively. In such cases, an epenthetic vowel is inserted to prevent disallowed consonant clusters. Thus, in the examples given above, the words are phonetically {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The phonetic form of the epenthetic vowel follows from vowel harmony triggered by the vowel in the preceding syllable. Usually it is a centralized version of the same sound, with the following exceptions: preceding {{#invoke:IPA|main}} produces {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; {{#invoke:IPA|main}} will be ignored if there is a nonneutral vowel earlier in the word; and a postalveolar or palatalized consonant will be followed by an epenthetic {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as in {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 62–72.</ref>

Stress

Stress in Mongolian is non-phonemic (does not distinguish different meanings) and is thus considered to depend entirely on syllable structure. But scholarly opinions on stress placement diverge sharply.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 95–97</ref> Most native linguists, regardless of which dialect they speak, claim that stress falls on the first syllable. Between 1941 and 1975, several Western scholars proposed that the leftmost heavy syllable gets the stress. Yet other positions were taken in works published between 1835 and 1915.

Walker (1997)<ref>elaborating on Bosson (1964) and Poppe (1970).</ref> proposes that stress falls on the rightmost heavy syllable unless this syllable is word-final:

HˈHLL	lang}}	main}}	'to be organized'
LHˈHL	lang}}	main}}	'separating' (adverbial)
LHHˈHL	lang}}	main}}	'the residents of Ulaanbaatar'
HˈHH	lang}}	main}}	'angrily'
ˈHLH	lang}}	main}}	'sad'

A "heavy syllable" is defined as one that is at least the length of a full vowel; short word-initial syllables are thereby excluded. If a word is bisyllabic and the only heavy syllable is word-final, it gets stressed anyway. In cases where there is only one phonemic short word-initial syllable, even this syllable can get the stress:<ref>Walker's evidence is collected from one native informant, examples from Poppe (1970) and consultation with James Bosson. She defines stress in terms of pitch, duration and intensity. The analysis pertains to the Khalkha dialect. The phonemic analysis in the examples is adjusted to Svantesson et al. (2005).</ref>

LˈH	lang}}	main}}	'goose'
ˈLL	lang}}	main}}	'having read'

More recently, the most extensive collection of phonetic data so far in Mongolian studies has been applied to a partial account of stress placement in the closely related Chakhar dialect.<ref>Harnud [Köke] (2003).</ref><ref>Harnud (2003) was reviewed by J. Brown in Journal of the International Phonetic Association (December 2006). 36(2): 205–207.</ref> The conclusion is drawn that di- and trisyllabic words with a short first syllable are stressed on the second syllable. But if their first syllable is long, then the data for different acoustic parameters seems to support conflicting conclusions: intensity data often seems to indicate that the first syllable is stressed, while F0 seems to indicate that it is the second syllable that is stressed.<ref>Harnud [Köke] (2003): 44–54, 94–100.</ref>

Grammar

The grammar in this article is also based primarily on Khalkha Mongolian. Unlike the phonology, most of what is said about morphology and syntax also holds true for Chakhar,<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003)</ref> while Khorchin is somewhat more diverse.<ref>Bayančoγtu (2002)</ref>

Morphology

Modern Mongolian is an agglutinative—almost exclusively suffixing—language, with the only exception being reduplication.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 58–59.</ref> Mongolian also does not have gendered nouns, or definite articles like "the".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Most of the suffixes consist of a single morpheme. There are many derivational morphemes.<ref>Sečen (2004).</ref> For example, the word Template:Transliteration consists of the root Template:Transliteration 'to be', an epenthetic ‑Template:Transliteration‑, the causative ‑Template:Transliteration‑ (hence 'to cause to be', to found), the derivative suffix ‑Template:Transliteration that forms nouns created by the action (like -ation in organisation) and the complex suffix ‑Template:Transliteration denoting something that belongs to the modified word (‑Template:Transliteration would be genitive).

Nominal compounds are quite frequent. Some derivational verbal suffixes are rather productive, e.g. Template:Transliteration 'to speak', Template:Transliteration 'to speak with each other'. Formally, the independent words derived using verbal suffixes can roughly be divided into three classes: final verbs, which can only be used sentence-finally, i.e. ‑Template:Transliteration (mainly future or generic statements) or ‑Template:Transliteration (second person imperative);<ref>Luvsanvandan (ed.) (1987): 151–153, 161–163.</ref> participles (often called "verbal nouns"), which can be used clause-finally or attributively, i.e. ‑Template:Transliteration (perfect-past)<ref>Hashimoto (1993).</ref> or ‑Template:Transliteration 'want to'; and converbs, which can link clauses or function adverbially, i.e. ‑Template:Transliteration (qualifies for any adverbial function or neutrally connects two sentences) or ‑Template:Transliteration (the action of the main clause takes place until the action expressed by the suffixed verb begins).<ref>Luvsanvandan (ed.) (1987): 103–104, 124–125, 130–131.</ref>

Nouns

Roughly speaking, Mongolian has between seven and nine cases: nominative (unmarked), genitive, dative-locative, accusative, ablative, instrumental, comitative, privative and directive, though the final two are not always considered part of the case paradigm.<ref>Tsedendamba and Möömöö (1997): 222–232.</ref>Template:Sfn If a direct object is definite, it must take the accusative, while it must take the nominative if it is indefinite.<ref>Guntsetseg (2008): 61. The exact conditions of use for indefinite specific direct objects have not yet been specified in detail, but they appear to be related to animacy and textual context.</ref><ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In addition to case, a number of postpositions exist that usually govern the genitive, dative-locative, comitative and privative cases, including a marked form of the nominative (which can itself then take further case forms). There is also a possible attributive case (when a noun is used attributively), which is unmarked in most nouns but takes the suffix ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) when the stem has an unstable nasal.<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 32–46.</ref> Nouns can also take a reflexive-possessive suffix, indicating that the marked noun is possessed by the subject of the sentence: Template:Transliteration I friend-Template:Smallcaps save-Template:Smallcaps 'I saved my friend'.<ref>Tsedendamba and Möömöö (1997): 234–241.</ref> However, there are also somewhat noun-like adjectives to which case suffixes seemingly cannot be attached directly unless there is ellipsis.<ref>For a pioneering approach to this problem, see Sajto (1999).</ref>

The rules governing the morphology of Mongolian case endings are intricate, and so the rules given below are only indicative. In many situations, further (more general) rules must also be taken into account in order to produce the correct form: these include the presence of an unstable nasal or unstable velar, as well as the rules governing when a penultimate vowel should be deleted from the stem with certain case endings (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) → {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)). The additional morphological rules specific to loanwords are not covered.

Nominative case

The nominative case is used when a noun (or other part of speech acting as one) is the subject of the sentence, and the agent of whatever action (not just physically) takes place in the sentence. In Mongolian, the nominative case does not have an ending.

Accusative case

The accusative case is used when a noun acts as a direct object (or just "object"), and receives action from a transitive verb. It is formed by:

1. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in long vowels or diphthongs, or when a stem ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) has an unstable velar (unstable g).
2. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after back vowel stems ending in unpalatalized consonants (except {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), short vowels (except {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or iotated vowels.
3. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after front vowel stems ending in consonants, short vowels or iotated vowels; and after all stems ending in the palatalized consonants {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), as well as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).

Note: If the stem ends in a short vowel or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), it is replaced by the suffix.

Genitive case

The genitive case is used to show possession of something.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

• For regular stems, it is formed by:
  1. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in the diphthongs {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), or the long vowel {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  2. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after back vowel stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  3. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after front vowel stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  4. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after back vowel stems ending in unpalatalized consonants (except {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), short vowels (except {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) or iotated vowels.
  5. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after front vowel stems ending in consonants (other than {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), short vowels or iotated vowels; and after all stems ending in the palatalized consonants {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), as well as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  6. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in a long vowel (other than {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), or after the diphthongs {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).

  Note: If the stem ends in a short vowel or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), it is replaced by the suffix.

• For stems with an unstable nasal (unstable n), it is formed by:
  1. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after back vowel stems (other than those ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).
  2. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after front vowel stems (other than those ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).
  3. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after back vowel stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  4. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after front vowel stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).

  Note: If the stem ends in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), it is replaced by the suffix.

• For stems with an unstable velar (unstable g), it is formed by ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration).

Dative-locative case

The dative-locative case is used to show the location of something, or to specify that something is in something else.<ref name="Gaunt, John. 2006"/>

• For regular stems or those with an unstable velar (unstable g), it is formed by:
  1. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in vowels or the vocalized consonants {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), and a small number of stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  2. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), most stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), and stems ending in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) when it is preceded by a vowel.
  3. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in the palatalized consonants {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  4. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration), ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration), ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) or ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after all other stems (depending on the vowel harmony of the stem).
• For stems with an unstable nasal (unstable n), it is formed by:
  1. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in vowels.
  2. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after stems ending in the palatalized consonants {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration).
  3. ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration), ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration), ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) or ‑{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (‑Template:Transliteration) after all other stems (depending on the vowel harmony of the stem).

Plurals

Source:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Plurality may be left unmarked, but there are overt plurality markers, some of which are restricted to humans. A noun that is modified by a numeral usually does not take any plural affix.<ref>Tsedendamba and Möömöö (1997): 210–219, Sečenbaγatur (2003): 23–29.</ref> There are four ways of forming plurals in Mongolian:

1. Some plurals are formed by adding -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} -nuud or -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} -nüüd. If the last vowel of the previous word is a (a), o (y), or ɔ (o), then -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is used; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} kharkh 'rat' becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} kharkhnuud 'rats'. If the last vowel of the previous word is e (э), ʊ (ө), ü (ү), or i (и) then {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is used; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nüd 'eye' becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} nüdnüüd 'eyes'.
2. In other plurals, just -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} -uud or -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} -üüd is added without the "n"; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} khot 'city' becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} khotuud 'cities', and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} eej 'mother' becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} eejüüd 'mothers'.
3. Another way of forming plurals is by adding -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} -nar; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} bagsh 'teacher' becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} bagsh nar 'teachers'.
4. The final way is an irregular form used: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} khün 'person' becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} khümüüs 'people'.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person, while the old demonstrative pronouns have come to form third person (proximal and distal) pronouns. Other word (sub-)classes include interrogative pronouns, conjunctions (which take participles), spatials, and particles, the last being rather numerous.<ref>This is a simplified treatment of word classes. For a more precise treatment within the descriptive framework common in Inner Mongolia, see Sečenbaγatur (2003).</ref>

citation

CitationClass=web }}</ref>
			Nominative Template:Small	Accusative Template:Small	Genitive Template:Small	Oblique stem Template:Small
1st person	singular		Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear
	plural	exclusive	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear
		inclusive			Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear
2nd person	singular	familiar	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear
		polite	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear
	plural		Template:Fs interlinear	–	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear
3rd person	singular		Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	–
	plural		Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	Template:Fs interlinear	–

Negation

Negation is mostly expressed by -güi (-{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) after participles and by the negation particle bish ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) after nouns and adjectives; negation particles preceding the verb (for example in converbal constructions) exist, but tend to be replaced by analytical constructions.<ref>For the historic background of negation, see Yu (1991). For a phenomenology, see Bjambasan (2001).</ref>

Numbers

Pronunciation and writing of numbers in text

N	Text in Mongolian	N	Text in Mongolian	N	Text in Mongolian
0	lang}} teg	10	lang}} arav	20	lang}}, khori
1	lang}} neg	11	lang}} arvan neg	30	lang}} guch
2	lang}} khoyor	12	lang}} arvan khoyor	40	lang}} döch
3	lang}} gurav	13	lang}} arvan gurav	50	lang}} tavi
4	lang}} döröv	14	lang}} arvan döröv	60	lang}} jar
5	lang}} tav	15	lang}} arvan tav	70	lang}} dal
6	lang}} zurgaa	16	lang}} arvan zurgaa	80	lang}} naya
7	lang}} doloo	17	lang}} arvan doloo	90	lang}} yer
8	lang}} naim	18	lang}} arvan naim	100	lang}} neg zuu
9	lang}} yös	19	lang}} arvan yös	200	lang}} khoyor zuu

Forming questions

When asking questions in Mongolian, a question marker is used to show a question is being asked. There are different question markers for yes/no questions and for information questions. For yes/no questions, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} are used when the last word ends in a short vowel or a consonant, and their use depends on the vowel harmony of the previous word. When the last word ends in a long vowel or a diphthong, then {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} are used (again depending on vowel harmony). For information questions (questions asking for information with an interrogative word like who, what, when, where, why, etc.), the question particles are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, depending on the last sound in the previous word.

1. Yes/No Question Particles -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
2. Open Ended Question Particles -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)

Basic interrogative pronouns -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'what'), -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'where'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'who'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'why'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'how'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'when'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'what kind')

Verbs

In Mongolian, verbs have a stem and an ending. For example, the stems {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration are suffixed with {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration respectively: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration. These are the infinitive or dictionary forms.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> The present/future tense is formed by adding {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration to the stem, for example {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration 'I/you/he/she/we/they (will) study'. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration is the present/future tense verb for 'to be'; likewise, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration is 'to read', and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration is 'to see'. The final vowel is barely pronounced and is not pronounced at all if the word after begins with a vowel, so {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'hello, how are you?'.<ref name=":0" />

1. Past Tense {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
2. Informed Past Tense (any point in past) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
3. Informed Past Tense (not long ago) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
4. Non-Informed Past Tense (generally a slightly to relatively more distant past) {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
5. Present Perfect Tense {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
6. Present Progressive Tense {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
7. (Reflective) Present Progressive Tense {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
8. Simple Present Tense {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
9. Simple Future {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)
10. Infinitive {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration)

Negation

There are several ways to form negatives in Mongolian.<ref name="Gaunt, John. 2006">Template:Cite book</ref> For example:

1. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) – the negative form of the verb 'to be' ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) – {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} means 'is/are not'.
2. -{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration). This suffix is added to verbs, so {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'go/will go') becomes {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'do not go/will not go').
3. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) is the word for 'no'.
4. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) is used for negative imperatives; e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration 'don't go')
5. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Transliteration) is the formal version of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.

Syntax

Differential case marking

Mongolian uses differential case marking, being a regular differential object marking (DOM) language. DOM emerges from a complicated interaction of factors such as referentiality, animacy and topicality.

Mongolian also exhibits a specific type of differential subject marking (DSM), in which the subjects of embedded clauses (including adverbial clauses) occur with accusative case.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Phrase structure

The noun phrase has the order: demonstrative pronoun/numeral, adjective, noun.<ref>Guntsetseg (2008): 55.</ref><ref name=":2" /> Attributive sentences precede the whole NP. Titles or occupations of people, low numerals indicating groups, and focus clitics are put behind the head noun.<ref>Tserenpil and Kullmann (2005): 237, 347.</ref> Possessive pronouns (in different forms) may either precede or follow the NP.<ref>Svantesson (2003): 164–165.</ref> Examples:

The verbal phrase consists of the predicate in the center, preceded by its complements and by the adverbials modifying it and followed (mainly if the predicate is sentence-final) by modal particles,<ref>Mönh-Amgalan (1998).</ref> as in the following example with predicate bichsen:

In this clause the adverbial, khelekhgüigeer 'without saying [so]' must precede the predicate's complement, üüniig 'it-Template:Smallcaps' in order to avoid syntactic ambiguity, since khelekhgüigeer is itself derived from a verb and hence an üüniig preceding it could be construed as its complement. If the adverbial was an adjective such as khurdan 'fast', it could optionally immediately precede the predicate. There are also cases in which the adverb must immediately precede the predicate.<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 167.</ref>

For Khalkha, the most complete treatment of the verbal forms is by Luvsanvandan (ed.) (1987). However, the analysis of predication presented here, while valid for Khalkha, is adapted from the description of Khorchin.<ref>Matsuoka (2007)</ref>

Most often, of course, the predicate consists of a verb. However, there are several types of nominal predicative constructions, with or without a copula.<ref>Hashimoto (2004)</ref> Auxiliaries that express direction and aktionsart (among other meanings) can with the assistance of a linking converb occupy the immediate postverbal position; e.g. Template:Interlinear

The next position is filled by converb suffixes in connection with the auxiliary, baj- 'to be', e.g. Template:Interlinear

Suffixes occupying this position express grammatical aspect; e.g. progressive and resultative. In the next position, participles followed by baj- may follow, e.g., Template:Interlinear

Here, an explicit perfect and habituality can be marked, which is aspectual in meaning as well. This position may be occupied by multiple suffixes in a single predication, and it can still be followed by a converbal Progressive. The last position is occupied by suffixes that express tense, evidentiality, modality, and aspect.

Clauses

Unmarked phrase order is subject–object–predicate.<ref>Guntsetseg (2008): 54.</ref><ref name=":2" /> While the predicate generally has to remain in clause-final position, the other phrases are free to change order or to wholly disappear.<ref>Tserenpil and Kullmann (2005): 88, 363–364.</ref> The topic tends to be placed clause-initially, new information rather at the end of the clause.<ref>Apatoczky (2005)</ref> Topic can be overtly marked with bol, which can also mark contrastive focus,<ref>Hammar (1983): 45–80.</ref> overt additive focus ('even, also') can be marked with the clitic ch,<ref>Kang (2000)</ref> and overt restrictive focus with the clitic l ('only').<ref>Tserenpil and Kullmann (2005): 348–349.</ref>

The inventory of voices in Mongolian consists of passive, causative, reciprocal, plurative, and cooperative. In a passive sentence, the verb takes the suffix -gd- and the agent takes either dative or instrumental case, the first of which is more common. In the causative, the verb takes the suffix -uul-, the causee (the person caused to do something) in a transitive action (e.g. 'raise') takes dative or instrumental case, and the causee in an intransitive action (e.g. 'rise') takes accusative case. Causative morphology is also used in some passive contexts:

The semantic attribute of animacy is syntactically important: thus the sentence, 'the bread was eaten by me', which is acceptable in English, would not be acceptable in Mongolian. The reciprocal voice is marked by -ld-, the plurative by -cgaa-, and the cooperative by -lc-.<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 116–123.</ref>

Mongolian allows for adjectival depictives that relate to either the subject or the direct object, e.g. Liena nücgen untdag 'Lena sleeps naked', while adjectival resultatives are marginal.<ref>Brosig (2009)</ref>

Complex sentences

One way to conjoin clauses is to have the first clause end in a converb, as in the following example using the converb -bol:

Some verbal nouns in the dative (or less often in the instrumental) function very similar to converbs:<ref>Svantesson (2003): 172.</ref> e.g. replacing olbol in the preceding sentence with olohod find-Template:Smallcaps yields 'when we find it we'll give it to you'. Quite often, postpositions govern complete clauses. In contrast, conjunctions take verbal nouns without case:<ref>See Sečenbaγatur (2003): 176–182 (who uses the term "postposition" for both and the term "conjunction" for junctors).</ref>

Finally, there is a class of particles, usually clause-initial, that are distinct from conjunctions but that also relate clauses:

Mongolian has a complementizer auxiliary verb ge- very similar to Japanese to iu. ge- literally means 'to say' and in converbal form gej precedes either a psych verb or a verb of saying. As a verbal noun like gedeg (with ni) it can form a subset of complement clauses. As gene it may function as an evidentialis marker.<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 152–153.</ref>

Mongolian clauses tend to be combined paratactically, which sometimes gives rise to sentence structures which are subordinative despite resembling coordinative structures in European languages:<ref>Johanson (1995)</ref>

In the subordinate clause the subject, if different from the subject of main clause, sometimes has to take accusative or genitive case.<ref>Mizuno (1995)</ref> There is marginal occurrence of subjects taking ablative case as well.<ref>Pürev-Očir (1997): 131.</ref> Subjects of attributive clauses in which the head has a function (as is the case for all English relative clauses) usually require that if the subject is not the head, then it take the genitive,<ref>Sečenbaγatur (2003): 36.</ref> e.g. tüünii idsen hool that.one-Template:Smallcaps eat-Template:Smallcaps meal 'the meal that s/he had eaten'.

Loanwords and coined words

Mongolian first adopted loanwords from many languages including Old Turkic, Sanskrit (these often via Uyghur), Persian, Tibetan,<ref>Temürčereng (2004): 86–99.</ref> Tungusic, and Chinese.<ref>Svantesson (2003): 127.</ref> However, more recent loanwords come from Russian, English,<ref>Temürčereng (2004): 99–102.</ref> and Mandarin Chinese (mainly in Inner Mongolia).<ref>Öbür mongγul-un yeke surγaγuli (2005): 792–793.</ref> Language commissions of the Mongolian state continuously translate new terminology into Mongolian,<ref>Template:Citation</ref> so as the Mongolian vocabulary now has {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'president' ('generalizer') and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'beer' ('yellow kumys'). There are several loan translations, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'train' ('fire cart') from Chinese {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'fire cart') 'train'.<ref>Öbür mongγul-un yeke surγaγuli (2005): 828.</ref> Other loan translations include {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'essence' from Chinese {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'true quality'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'population' from Chinese {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'person mouth'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'corn, maize' from Chinese {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'jade rice') and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'republic' from Chinese {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'public collaboration nation').

• Sanskrit loanwords include {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'religion'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'space'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'talent'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'good deeds'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'instant'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'continent'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'planet'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'tales, stories'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'poems, verses'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'strophe'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'mineral water, nectar'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'chronicle'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Mercury'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Venus'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Jupiter'), and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'Saturn').
• Persian loanwords include {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'amethyst'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'brandy'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'building'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'tiger'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'chess queen; female tiger'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'steel'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'crystal'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sesame'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'prison'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'powder/gunpowder; medicine'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'telescope'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'telescope/microscope'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'notebook'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'high God'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'soap'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'stool'), and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'cup').
• Chinese loanwords include {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} bǎnzi 'board'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} là 'candle'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} luóbo 'radish'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} húlu 'gourd'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} dēnglù 'lamp'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} qìdēng 'electric lamp'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} bǐr 'paintbrush'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} zhǎnbǎnzi 'cutting board'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} qīngjiāo 'pepper'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} jiǔcài 'leek'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} mógu 'mushroom'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} cù 'vinegar, soy sauce'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} báicài 'cabbage'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} mántóu 'steamed bun'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} mǎimài 'trade'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gùamiàn 'noodles'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} dān 'single'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gāng 'steel'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} lángtóu 'sledgehammer'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} chūanghu 'window'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} bāozi 'dumplings'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} hǔoshāor 'fried dumpling'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} rǔzhītāng 'cream soup'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} fěntāng 'flour soup'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} jiàng 'soy'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} wáng 'king'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gōngzhǔ 'princess'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} gōng 'duke'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} jiāngjūn 'general'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} tàijiàn 'eunuch'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} piànzi 'recorded disc'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} guǎnzi 'restaurant'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} liánhuā 'lotus'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} huār 'flower'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} táor 'peach'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} yīngtáor 'cherry'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} jiè 'to borrow, to lend'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} wāndòu 'pea'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} yàngzi 'manner, appearance'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} xìngzhì 'characteristic'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} lír 'pear'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} páizi 'target'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} jīn 'weight'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} bǐng 'pancake'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} huángli 'calendar'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} shāocí 'porcelain'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} kǎndōudu 'sleeveless vest'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} fěntiáozi 'potato noodles'), and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} chá 'tea').

In the 20th century, many Russian loanwords entered the Mongolian language, including {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'doctor', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'chocolate', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'train wagon', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'calendar', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'system', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'T-shirt'), and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'car'.

In more recent times, due to socio-political reforms, Mongolian has loaned various words from English; some of which have gradually evolved as official terms: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'management', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'computer', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'file', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'marketing', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'credit', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'online', and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'message'. Most of these are confined to the Mongolian state.Template:Citation needed

In turn, other languages have borrowed words from Mongolian. Examples (Mongolian in brackets) include Persian کشيكچى {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'royal guard'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'pheasant'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'iron armour'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'chief of commandant'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'scissors'); Uzbek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'island'); Chinese 衚衕 hutong (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'passageway'), 站赤 zhanchi (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'courier/post station'); Middle Chinese 犢 duk (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'calf'); Korean {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'royal meal'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'castrated animal'), {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'chest of an animal'); Old English cocer (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'container'); Old French quivre (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'container'); Old High German Baldrian (from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'valerian plant'). Köküür and balchirgan-a are thought to have been brought to Europe by the Huns or Pannonian Avars.

Despite having a diverse range of loanwords, Mongolian dialects such as Khalkha and Khorchin, within a comparative vocabulary of 452 words of Common Mongolic vocabulary, retain as many as 95% of these native words, contrasting e.g. with Southern Mongolic languages at 39–77% retentions.<ref>Rybatzki (2003a): 385–387</ref>

Writing systems

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Nova N 176 folio 9.jpg

Nova N 176 found in Kyrgyzstan. The manuscript (dating to the 12th century Western Liao) is written in the Mongolic Khitan language using cursive Khitan large script. It has 127 leaves and 15,000 characters.

File:Ulan Bator 14.JPG

Mongolian script and Mongolian Cyrillic on Sukhbaatar's statue in Ulaanbaatar

Mongolian has been written in a variety of alphabets, making it a language with one of the largest number of scripts used historically. The earliest stages of Mongolian (Xianbei, Wuhuan languages) may have used an indigenous runic script as indicated by Chinese sources. The Khitan large script adopted in 920 CE is an early Mongol (or according to some, para-Mongolic) script.

The traditional Mongolian script was first adopted by Genghis Khan in 1204, who recognized the need to represent his own people's language. It developed from the Uyghur script when several members of the Uyghur elite who were brought into the Mongol confederation early on shared their knowledge of their written language with the Mongol imperial clan. Among the Uyghurs sharing that knowledge were Tata-tonga (Template:Lang-zh), Bilge Buqa (比俚伽普華), Kara Igach Buyruk (哈剌亦哈赤北魯), and Mengsus (孟速思).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> From that time, the script underwent some minor disambiguations and supplementation.

Between 1930 and 1932, a short-lived attempt was made to introduce the Latin script in the Mongolian state. In 1941, the Latin alphabet was adopted, though it lasted only two months.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Mongolian Cyrillic script was the result of the spreading of Russian influence following the expansion of the Russian Empire. The establishment of Soviet Union helped the influence continue, and the Cyrillic alphabet was slowly introduced with the effort by Russian/Soviet linguists in collaboration with their Mongolian counterparts. It was made mandatory by government decree in 1941. The introduction of the Cyrillic script, with its smaller discrepancy between written and spoken form, contributed to the success of the large-scale government literacy campaign, which increased the literacy rate from 17.3% to 73.5% between 1941 and 1950.<ref name=unesco>Batchuluun Yembuu, Khulan Munkh-Erdene (2005). Literacy country study: Mongolia Template:Webarchive. Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006. Literacy for Life. P.7-8</ref> Earlier government campaigns to eradicate illiteracy, employing the traditional script, had only managed to raise literacy from 3.0% to 17.3% between 1921 and 1940.<ref name=unesco/> From 1991 to 1994, an attempt at reintroducing the traditional alphabet failed in the face of popular resistance.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 34, 40–41.</ref> In informal contexts of electronic text production, the use of the Latin alphabet is common.<ref name=MHK>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In the People's Republic of China, Mandarin Chinese is the official language along with Mongolian in some regions, notably the entire Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The traditional alphabet has always been used there, although Cyrillic was considered briefly before the Sino-Soviet split.<ref>Svantesson et al. (2005): 34, 40.</ref> There are two types of written Mongolian used in China: the traditional Mongolian script, which is official among Mongols nationwide, and the Clear Script, used predominantly among Oirats in Xinjiang.<ref>Sečenbaγatur et al. (2005): 398.</ref>

In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Official documents to be recorded in both scripts from 2025 Template:Webarchive, Montsame, 18 March 2020.</ref><ref>Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st Template:Webarchive, Gogo, 1 July 2015. "Misinterpretation 1: Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used. There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic. It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic. Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script. This provision is to be effective starting 1 January 2025. ID, birth certificate, marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament."</ref>

Example text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Mongolian, written in the Cyrillic alphabet:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Mongolian, written in the Latin alphabet:

Template:Transliteration

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Mongolian, written in the Mongolian script:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode Template:MongolUnicode

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Mongolian, transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet:

{{#invoke:IPA|main}}

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

• Mongolian writing systems
  • Mongolian script
    • Galik alphabet
    • Todo alphabet
  • ʼPhags-pa script
    • Horizontal square script
  • Soyombo script
  • Mongolian Latin alphabet
    • SASM/GNC romanization § Mongolian
  • Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet
  • Mongolian transliteration of Chinese characters
    • Template:Ill
  • Mongolian Braille
• Mongolian Sign Language
• Mongolian name

References

Sources

For some Mongolian authors, the Mongolian version of their name is also given in square brackets, e.g., "Harnud [Köke]". Köke is the author's native name. It is a practice common among Mongolian scholars, for purposes of publishing and being cited abroad, to adopt a surname based on one's patronymic, in this example "Harnud"; compare Mongolian name.
Some library catalogs write Chinese language titles with each syllable separate, even syllables belonging to a single word.

List of abbreviations used

TULIP is in official use by some librarians; the remainder have been contrived for this listing.

Journals

• KULIP = Kyūshū daigaku gengogaku ronshū [Kyushu University linguistics papers]
• MKDKH = Muroran kōgyō daigaku kenkyū hōkoku [Memoirs of the Muroran Institute of Technology]
• TULIP = Tōkyō daigaku gengogaku ronshū [Tokyo University linguistics papers]

Publishers

• ÖMAKQ = Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a Template:Bracket
• ÖMSKKQ = Öbür mongγul-un surγan kümüǰil-ün keblel-ün qoriy-a Template:Bracket
• ÖMYSKQ = Öbür mongγul-un yeke surγaγuli-yin keblel-ün qoriy-a Template:Bracket
• ŠUA = [Mongol Ulsyn] Šinžleh Uhaany Akademi Template:Bracket

• Template:In lang Amaržargal, B. 1988. BNMAU dah' Mongol helnij nutgijn ajalguuny tol' bichig: halh ajalguu. Ulaanbaatar: ŠUA.
• Apatóczky, Ákos Bertalan. 2005. On the problem of the subject markers of the Mongolian language. In Wú Xīnyīng, Chén Gānglóng (eds.), Miànxiàng xīn shìjìde ménggǔxué [The Mongolian studies in the new century : review and prospect]. Běijīng: Mínzú Chūbǎnshè. 334–343. Template:ISBN.
• Template:In lang Ashimura, Takashi. 2002. Mongorugo jarōto gengo no {{#invoke:IPA|main}} no yōhō ni tsuite. TULIP, 21: 147–200.
• Template:In lang Bajansan, Ž. and Š. Odontör. 1995. Hel šinžlelijn ner tom"joony züjlčilsen tajlbar toli. Ulaanbaatar.
• Template:In lang Bayančoγtu. 2002. Qorčin aman ayalγun-u sudulul. Kökeqota: ÖMYSKQ. Template:ISBN.
• Template:In lang Bjambasan, P. 2001. Mongol helnij ügüjsgeh har'caa ilerhijleh hereglüürüüd. Mongol hel, sojolijn surguul: Erdem šinžilgeenij bičig, 18: 9–20.
• Bosson, James E. 1964. Modern Mongolian; a primer and reader. Uralic and Altaic series; 38. Bloomington: Indiana University.
• Brosig, Benjamin. 2009. Depictives and resultatives in Modern Khalkh Mongolian. Hokkaidō gengo bunka kenkyū, 7: 71–101.
• Chuluu, Ujiyediin. 1998. Studies on Mongolian verb morphology Template:Webarchive. Dissertation, University of Toronto.
• Template:In lang Činggeltei. 1999. Odu üj-e-jin mongγul kelen-ü ǰüi. Kökeqota: ÖMAKQ. Template:ISBN.
• Template:In lang Coloo, Ž. 1988. BNMAU dah' mongol helnij nutgijn ajalguuny tol' bichig: ojrd ajalguu. Ulaanbaatar: ŠUA.
• Template:In lang Djahukyan, Gevork. (1991). Armenian Lexicography. In Franz Josef Hausmann (Ed.), An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography (pp. 2367–2371). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
• Template:In lang [Dobu] Dàobù. 1983. Ménggǔyǔ jiǎnzhì. Běijīng: Mínzú.
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Further reading

• Template:Cite book

Traditional Mongolian script

• (ru) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Грамматика монгольскaго языка (Grammatika mongolʹskago i︠a︡zyka), Saint-Petersburg, 1832
• (ru) Bobrovnikov, Aleksieĭ Aleksandrovich Грамматика монгольско-калмыцкого языка (Grammatika mongolʹsko-kalmyt͡skago i͡azyka), Kazan, 1849
• (de) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Grammatik der mongolischen Sprache, St. Petersburg, 1831
• (fr) Rémusat, Abel Récherches sur les langues tartares, Paris, 1820
• (fr, ru) Kovalevskiĭ, Osip Mikhaĭlovich, Dictionnaire Mongol-Russe-Franca̧is, Volumes 1–3, Kazan 1844-46-49
• (fr) Soulié, Charles Georges, Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss), Paris, 1903
• (it) Puini, Carlo, Elementi della grammatica mongolica, Firenze, 1878

External links

• Lingua Mongolia (a website dedicated to the Mongolian language, mostly as written in the Mongolian Uyghur script) Template:Webarchive
• Bolor Mongolian-English dictionary