Exercise

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Cycling is a popular form of exercise.

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Weight training

Exercise or workout is physical activity that enhances or maintains fitness and overall health.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> which is performed for various reasons, including weight loss or maintenance, to aid growth and improve strength, develop muscles and the cardiovascular system, prevent injuries, hone athletic skills, improve health,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> or simply for enjoyment. Many people choose to exercise outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and improve well-being as well as mental health.<ref name="Fitness for Foreigners">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In terms of health benefits, usually, 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week is recommended for reducing the risk of health problems.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> At the same time, even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none. Only doing an hour and a quarter (11 minutes/day) of exercise could reduce the risk of early death, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and cancer.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:TOC limit

Classification

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types, depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:<ref name="phy_active">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

• Aerobic exercise is any physical activity that uses large muscle groups and causes the body to use more oxygen than it would while resting.<ref name="phy_active" /> The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase cardiovascular endurance.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Examples of aerobic exercise include running, cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, dancing, playing tennis, continuous training, and long distance running.<ref name="phy_active" />
• Anaerobic exercise, which includes strength and resistance training, can firm, strengthen, and increase muscle mass, as well as improve bone density, balance, and coordination.<ref name="phy_active" /> Examples of strength exercises are push-ups, pull-ups, lunges, squats, bench press. Anaerobic exercise also includes weight training, functional training, Eccentric Training, interval training, sprinting, and high-intensity interval training which increase short-term muscle strength.<ref name="phy_active" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
• Flexibility exercises stretch and lengthen muscles.<ref name="phy_active" /> Activities such as stretching help to improve joint flexibility and keep muscles limber.<ref name="phy_active" /> The goal is to improve the range of motion which can reduce the chance of injury.<ref name="phy_active" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on accuracy, agility, power, and speed.<ref name="crossfit">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Types of exercise can also be classified as dynamic or static. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the systolic pressure to rise significantly, albeit transiently, during the performance of the exercise.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Health effects

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Exercise affects many organs.

Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight, regulating the digestive system, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week, with diminishing returns at higher levels of activity.<ref name=BMJ2016 /> For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for transportation 25 minutes on a daily basis would together achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week.<ref name=BMJ2016>Template:Cite journal</ref> A lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer, and 10% of colon cancer worldwide.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide.<ref name=":2" />

The American-British writer Bill Bryson wrote: "If someone invented a pill that could do for us all that a moderate amount of exercise achieves, it would instantly become the most successful drug in history."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Fitness

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Most people can increase fitness by increasing physical activity levels.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> Increases in muscle size from resistance training are primarily determined by diet and testosterone.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.<ref>Template:Cite journalTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref name="newsci_geddes">Template:Cite magazine</ref> There is evidence that exercising in middle age may lead to better physical ability later in life.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Early motor skills and development is also related to physical activity and performance later in life. Children who are more proficient with motor skills early on are more inclined to be physically active, and thus tend to perform well in sports and have better fitness levels. Early motor proficiency has a positive correlation to childhood physical activity and fitness levels, while less proficiency in motor skills results in a more sedentary lifestyle.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The type and intensity of physical activity performed may have an effect on a person's fitness level. There is some weak evidence that high-intensity interval training may improve a person's VO2 max slightly more than lower intensity endurance training.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, unscientific fitness methods could lead to sports injuries.Template:Source needed

Cardiovascular system

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File:Central (cardiovascular) and peripheral (skeletal muscle) adaptations to exercise training.jpg

Central (cardiovascular) and peripheral (skeletal muscle) adaptations to exercise training

The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. Low levels of physical exercise increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="aha2017">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Studies have shown that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years; however, these risks can be greatly decreased with regular physical exercise.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

There is a dose-response relationship between the amount of exercise performed from approximately Template:Nowrap kcal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly men. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is seen in sedentary individuals who become moderately active.

Studies have shown that since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in aging women leads to healthier cardiovascular profiles.

The most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40–60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). After a myocardial infarction, survivors who changed their lifestyle to include regular exercise had higher survival rates. Sedentary people are most at risk for mortality from cardiovascular and all other causes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> According to the American Heart Association, exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke.<ref name=aha2017 />

Some have suggested that increases in physical exercise might decrease healthcare costs, increase the rate of job attendance, as well as increase the amount of effort women put into their jobs.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Immune system

Although there have been hundreds of studies on physical exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness.<ref name="Gleeson2007" /> Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system; an effect which is modeled in a J curve. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of infection occurrence.<ref name="Gleeson2007" /> However, another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. Studies have shown that strenuous stress for long durations, such as training for a marathon, can suppress the immune system by decreasing the concentration of lymphocytes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have a slightly elevated natural killer cell count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.<ref name=Gleeson2007>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with a lower incidence of upper respiratory tract infections in marathon runners.<ref name=Gleeson2007 />

Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. In individuals with heart disease, exercise interventions lower blood levels of fibrinogen and C-reactive protein, an important cardiovascular risk marker.<ref name=Swardfager2012>Template:Cite journal</ref> The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.<ref name=Gleeson2007 />

Cancer

A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. According to the review, "[there] was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer–specific, and colon cancer–specific mortality. There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Evidence suggests that exercise may positively affect the quality of life in cancer survivors, including factors such as anxiety, self-esteem and emotional well-being.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> For people with cancer undergoing active treatment, exercise may also have positive effects on health-related quality of life, such as fatigue and physical functioning.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref> This is likely to be more pronounced with higher intensity exercise.<ref name=":1" />

Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Although there is only limited scientific evidence on the subject, people with cancer cachexia are encouraged to engage in physical exercise.<ref name="pmid26401466">Template:Cite journal</ref> Due to various factors, some individuals with cancer cachexia have a limited capacity for physical exercise.<ref name="pmid29891116">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="pmid29440149" /> Compliance with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often have high drop-out rates.<ref name="pmid29891116" /><ref name="pmid29440149">Template:Cite journal</ref>

There is low-quality evidence for an effect of aerobic physical exercises on anxiety and serious adverse events in adults with hematological malignancies.<ref name=":3" /> Aerobic physical exercise may result in little to no difference in the mortality, quality of life, or physical functioning.<ref name=":3" /> These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression and reduction in fatigue.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>

NeurobiologicalTemplate:Anchor

Depression

Continuous aerobic exercise can induce a transient state of euphoria, colloquially known as a "runner's high" in distance running or a "rower's high" in crew, through the increased biosynthesis of at least three euphoriant neurochemicals: anandamide (an endocannabinoid),<ref name="endocannabinoids">Template:Cite journal</ref> β-endorphin (an endogenous opioid),<ref name="Endorphin">Template:Cite journal</ref> and phenethylamine (a trace amine and amphetamine analog).<ref name="PEA exercise primary">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Renaissance">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Neuropsychiatric">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Concussion

Supervised aerobic exercise without a risk of re-injury (falling, getting hit on the head) is prescribed as treatment for acute concussion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Some exercise interventions may also prevent sport-related concussion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Sleep

Preliminary evidence from a 2012 review indicated that physical training for up to four months may increase sleep quality in adults over 40 years of age.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A 2010 review suggested that exercise generally improved sleep for most people, and may help with insomnia, but there is insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A 2018 systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that exercise can improve sleep quality in people with insomnia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Libido

One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Respiratory system

People who participate in physical exercise experience increased cardiovascular fitness.Template:Medical citation needed There is some level of concern about additional exposure to air pollution when exercising outdoors, especially near traffic.<ref name="Laeremans et al. 2018">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Mechanism of effects

Skeletal muscle

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Resistance training and subsequent consumption of a protein-rich meal promotes muscle hypertrophy and gains in muscle strength by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown (MPB).<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Muscle hypertrophy review">Template:Cite journal</ref> The stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by resistance training occurs via phosphorylation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and subsequent activation of mTORC1, which leads to protein biosynthesis in cellular ribosomes via phosphorylation of mTORC1's immediate targets (the p70S6 kinase and the translation repressor protein 4EBP1).<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Molecular Aspects of Medicine 2016 review">Template:Cite journal</ref> The suppression of muscle protein breakdown following food consumption occurs primarily via increases in plasma insulin.<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="HMB in vivo human pharmacodynamics" /><ref name="Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of HMB-CA in humans in vivo" /> Similarly, increased muscle protein synthesis (via activation of mTORC1) and suppressed muscle protein breakdown (via insulin-independent mechanisms) has also been shown to occur following ingestion of β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid.<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="HMB in vivo human pharmacodynamics">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of HMB-CA in humans in vivo">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Sarcopenia July 2015 review">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Aerobic exercise induces mitochondrial biogenesis and an increased capacity for oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria of skeletal muscle, which is one mechanism by which aerobic exercise enhances submaximal endurance performance.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Aerobic exercise – mitochondrial biogenesis and OXPHOS capacity" /> These effects occur via an exercise-induced increase in the intracellular AMP:ATP ratio, thereby triggering the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) which subsequently phosphorylates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis.<ref name="Skeletal muscle homeostasis 2016 review" /><ref name="Aerobic exercise – mitochondrial biogenesis and OXPHOS capacity">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Mitochondrial biogenesis">Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:Multiple image

Other peripheral organs

File:Aerobic Anaerobic Exercise Adaptations.jpg

Summary of long-term adaptations to regular aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise can cause several central cardiovascular adaptations, including an increase in stroke volume (SV)<ref name=Exercise_SV>Template:Cite journal</ref> and maximal aerobic capacity (VO₂ max),<ref name=Exercise_SV /><ref name=AerobicMotorCapability>Template:Cite journal</ref> as well as a decrease in resting heart rate (RHR).<ref name=Exercise_RHR1>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Exercise_RHR2>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Exercise_RHR3>Template:Cite journal</ref> Long-term adaptations to resistance training, the most common form of anaerobic exercise, include muscular hypertrophy,<ref name=Exercise_Hypertrophy>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Exercise_Hypertrophy2>Template:Cite journal</ref> an increase in the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) of muscle(s), and an increase in neural drive,<ref name=Exercise_Neuraldrive>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=AnaerobicStrength>Template:Cite journal</ref> both of which lead to increased muscular strength.<ref name=Exercise_MuscularStrength>Template:Cite journal</ref> Neural adaptations begin more quickly and plateau prior to the hypertrophic response.<ref name=NeuralvsHypertrophy1>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=NeuralvsHypertrophy2>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and multiple anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Exercise reduces levels of cortisol, which causes many health problems, both physical and mental.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the same exercise after meals.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There is evidence that vigorous exercise (90–95% of VO₂ max) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO₂ max), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Ventricular hypertrophy, the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise.

Central nervous system

Template:Further The effects of physical exercise on the central nervous system may be mediated in part by specific neurotrophic factor hormones released into the blood by muscles, including BDNF, IGF-1, and VEGF.<ref name="Exercise – neurotrophic factors + basal ganglia">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="BDNF meta analysis">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Cerebral hemodynamics and AD">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Public health measures

Community-wide and school campaigns are often used in an attempt to increase a population's level of physical activity. Studies to determine the effectiveness of these types of programs need to be interpreted cautiously as the results vary.<ref name=":0" /> There is some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes for older adults, such as those involving gait, balance, co-ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Following progressive resistance training, older adults also respond with improved physical function.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Brief interventions promoting physical activity may be cost-effective, however this evidence is weak and there are variations between studies.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Environmental approaches appear promising: signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The city of Bogotá, Colombia, for example, blocks off Template:Convert of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. Such pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases and to maintain a healthy BMI.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Parents can promote physical activity by modelling healthy levels of physical activity or by encouraging physical activity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential.

The European Commission's Directorate-General for Education and Culture (DG EAC) has dedicated programs and funds for Health Enhancing Physical Activity (HEPA) projects<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> within its Horizon 2020 and Erasmus+ program, as research showed that too many Europeans are not physically active enough. Financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this field across the EU and around the world, the promotion of HEPA in the EU and its partner countries, and the European Sports Week. The DG EAC regularly publishes a Eurobarometer on sport and physical activity.

Exercise trends

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Worldwide there has been a large shift toward less physically demanding work.<ref name=WHO2009>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor-saving technology in the home, and fewer active recreational pursuits.<ref name=WHO2009 /> Personal lifestyle changes, however, can correct the lack of physical exercise.Template:Medical citation needed

Research published in 2015 suggests that incorporating mindfulness into physical exercise interventions increases exercise adherence and self-efficacy, and also has positive effects both psychologically and physiologically.<ref name=Kennedy>Template:Cite journal</ref>

• Sports activities for exercising
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  Athletics (ex. pole vault) as a form of exercise

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Social and cultural variation

Exercising looks different in every country, as do the motivations behind exercising.<ref name="Fitness for Foreigners" /> In some countries, people exercise primarily indoors (such as at home or health clubs), while in others, people primarily exercise outdoors. People may exercise for personal enjoyment, health and well-being, social interactions, competition or training, etc. These differences could potentially be attributed to a variety of reasons including geographic location and social tendencies.

In Colombia, for example, citizens value and celebrate the outdoor environments of their country. In many instances, they use outdoor activities as social gatherings to enjoy nature and their communities. In Bogotá, Colombia, a 70-mile stretch of road known as the Ciclovía is shut down each Sunday for bicyclists, runners, rollerbladers, skateboarders and other exercisers to work out and enjoy their surroundings.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Similarly to Colombia, citizens of Cambodia tend to exercise socially outside. In this country, public gyms have become quite popular. People will congregate at these outdoor gyms not only to use the public facilities, but also to organize aerobics and dance sessions, which are open to the public.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Sweden has also begun developing outdoor gyms, called utegym. These gyms are free to the public and are often placed in beautiful, picturesque environments. People will swim in rivers, use boats, and run through forests to stay healthy and enjoy the natural world around them. This works particularly well in Sweden due to its geographical location.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Exercise in some areas of China, particularly among those who are retired, seems to be socially grounded. In the mornings, square dances are held in public parks; these gatherings may include Latin dancing, ballroom dancing, tango, or even the jitterbug. Dancing in public allows people to interact with those with whom they would not normally interact, allowing for both health and social benefits.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

These sociocultural variations in physical exercise show how people in different geographic locations and social climates have varying motivations and methods of exercising. Physical exercise can improve health and well-being, as well as enhance community ties and appreciation of natural beauty.<ref name="Fitness for Foreigners" />

Adherence

Adhering or staying consistent with an exercise program can be challenging for many people.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Studies have identified many different factors. Some factors include why a person is exercising (e.g, health, social), what types of exercises or how the exercise program is structured, whether or not professionals are involved in the program, education related to exercise and health, monitoring and progress made in exercise program, goals setting, and involved a person is in choosing the exercise program and setting goals.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Nutrition and recovery

Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients while providing ample micronutrients, to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Active recovery is recommended after participating in physical exercise because it removes lactate from the blood more quickly than inactive recovery. Removing lactate from circulation allows for an easy decline in body temperature, which can also benefit the immune system, as an individual may be vulnerable to minor illnesses if the body temperature drops too abruptly after physical exercise.<ref name="pmid16195010">Template:Cite journal</ref> Exercise physiologists recommend the "4-Rs framework":<ref name="Bonilla 2021">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Rehydration

Replacing any fluid and electrolyte deficits

Refuel

Consuming carbohydrates to replenish muscle and liver glycogen

Repair

Consuming high-quality protein sources with additional supplementation of creatine monohydrate

Rest

Getting long and high-quality sleep after exercise, additionally improved by consuming casein proteins, antioxidant-rich fruits, and high-glycemic-index meals

Exercise has an effect on appetite, but whether it increases or decreases appetite varies from individual to individual, and is affected by the intensity and duration of the exercise.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

History

File:Roper's gymnasium, Philadelphia, circa 1831.jpg

Roper's gymnasium, Philadelphia, US, Template:Circa

The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Dating back to 65 BCE, it was Marcus Cicero, Roman politician and lawyer, who stated: "It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Exercise was also seen to be valued later in history during the Early Middle Ages as a means of survival by the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

More recently, exercise was regarded as a beneficial force in the 19th century. In 1858, Archibald MacLaren opened a gymnasium at the University of Oxford and instituted a training regimen for Major Frederick Hammersley and 12 non-commissioned officers.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> This regimen was assimilated into the training of the British Army, which formed the Army Gymnastic Staff in 1860 and made sport an important part of military life.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Several mass exercise movements were started in the early twentieth century as well. The first and most significant of these in the UK was the Women's League of Health and Beauty, founded in 1930 by Mary Bagot Stack, that had 166,000 members in 1937.<ref name=FitnessLeague>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was further established in 1949 and reported in 1953 by a team led by Jerry Morris.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Morris1953">Template:Cite journal</ref> Morris noted that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got: bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.<ref name="Morris1953" />

Other animals

Animals like chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas and bonobos, which are closely related to humans, without ill effect engage in considerably less physical activity than is required for human health, raising the question of how this is biochemically possible.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

Studies of animals indicate that physical activity may be more adaptable than changes in food intake to regulate energy balance.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Mice having access to activity wheels engaged in voluntary exercise and increased their propensity to run as adults.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Artificial selection of mice exhibited significant heritability in voluntary exercise levels,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> with "high-runner" breeds having enhanced aerobic capacity,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> hippocampal neurogenesis,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and skeletal muscle morphology.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The effects of exercise training appear to be heterogeneous across non-mammalian species. As examples, exercise training of salmon showed minor improvements of endurance,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and a forced swimming regimen of yellowtail amberjack and rainbow trout accelerated their growth rates and altered muscle morphology favorable for sustained swimming.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Crocodiles, alligators, and ducks showed elevated aerobic capacity following exercise training.<ref name="Owerk_Baud_2008">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> No effect of endurance training was found in most studies of lizards,<ref name="Owerk_Baud_2008" /><ref name="Garland_et_al_1987">Template:Cite journal</ref> although one study did report a training effect.<ref name="jeb">Template:Cite journal</ref> In lizards, sprint training had no effect on maximal exercise capacity,<ref name=jeb /> and muscular damage from over-training occurred following weeks of forced treadmill exercise.<ref name="Garland_et_al_1987" />

See also

Template:Portal {{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:Div col

• Active living
• Behavioural change theories
• Bodybuilding
• Cyclability
• Exercise hypertension
• Exercise intensity
• Exercise intolerance
• Exercise-induced anaphylaxis
• Exercise-induced asthma
• Exercise-induced nausea
• Green exercise
• Kinesiology
• Metabolic equivalent
• Neurobiological effects of physical exercise
• Non-exercise associated thermogenesis
• Supercompensation
• Unilateral training
• Walkability
• Warming up

External links

• Adult Compendium of Physical Activities – a website containing lists of Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) values for a number of physical activities, based upon Template:PMID
• MedLinePlus Topic on Exercise and Physical Fitness
• Physical activity and the environment – guidance on the promotion and creation of physical environments that support increased levels of physical activity.
• Science Daily's reference on physical exercise