Religious philosophy

Template:Short description Template:Distinguish Template:Cleanup reorganize Template:Philosophy sidebar Template:Religion by Country Religious philosophy is philosophical thinking that is influenced and directed as a consequence of teachings from a particular religion. It can be done objectively, but it may also be done as a persuasion tool by believers in that faith. Religious philosophy is concerned with the nature of religion, theories of salvation, and conceptions of god, gods, and/or the divine.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Due to the historical development of religions, many religions share commonalities concerning their philosophies. These philosophies are often considered to be universal and include beliefs about concepts such as the afterlife, souls, and miracles.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Philosophical commonalities

Religious faith and philosophical reflection are connected to one another. Religious tradition influences the philosophical thinking and beliefs of followers of that religion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Many philosophical commonalities have arisen among religions due to their core historical foundations. For example, Abrahamic religions, which encompass Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Baha'i Faith, Yezidi, Druze, Samaritan, and Rastafari, share philosophical commonalities, although they differ in their presentation of these philosophical concepts through their respective religious texts.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

There are also philosophical concepts and reasoning in religious teachings that were conceived independently from one another but are still similar and reflect analogous ideas.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, the arguments and reasoning for the existence of an omniscient god or multiple gods can be found in several religions, including Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. Another example includes the philosophical concept of free will, which is present in both monotheistic and polytheistic religions.<ref name=":6" />

Types

Intuitive religious philosophy

Many religious concepts are considered to be "cross-culturally ubiquitous"<ref name=":5" /> as they are "cognitively natural."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":5" /> They are deemed intuitive, meaning that they arise without much direction, instruction, or coaching in the early stages of our intellectual development<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref> and do not necessarily originate from cultural influence.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Such religious concepts include beliefs concerning the "afterlife, souls, supernatural agents, and miraculous events."<ref name=":5" />

Reflective religious philosophy

Some religious concepts require deliberate teaching to ensure the transmission of their ideas and beliefs to others.<ref name=":7" /> These beliefs are categorised as reflective and are often stored in a linguistic format that allows for ease of transmission. Reflective philosophies are thought to contribute significantly to the continuation of cultural and religious beliefs.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Such religious philosophies include karma, divine immanent justice, or providence, and also encompass theological concepts such as Trinity in Christianity or Brahman in Hinduism.<ref name=":7" />

God

Religious philosophy is predominantly concerned with the conceptions of god, gods, and/or the divine.<ref name=":0" />

Ontological arguments

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Ontological arguments are arguments based on reason with the conclusion that God exists.<ref name=":8">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There are many notable contributors to the development of various ontological arguments.

In the 11th century C.E., Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) reasoned in his work Proslogion about the existence of God in an ontological argument based on the idea that there is a 'being than which no greater can be conceived'.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Thomas Aquinas (Template:Circa–1274) extracted components of philosophical teaching relevant to Christianity, using philosophy as a means to demonstrate God's existence.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In his work Summa Theologica, Aquinas presents five arguments for the existence of God, known as 'quinque viae' or 'five ways'.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

File:Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg

Portrait of René Descartes

In the 17th century, René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed similar arguments to those of Saint Anselm of Canterbury. For example, in his work Fifth Meditation, he provides an ontological argument based on the reasoning that if we are able to conceive the idea of a supremely perfect being (i.e., that we have an idea of a supremely perfect being), then, he claims, we are able to reach the conclusion that there exists a supremely perfect being.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":10">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":11">Template:Cite journal</ref> Two versions of Descartes' ontological argument exist:<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" />

• Version A:

1. Whatever I clearly and distinctly perceive to be contained in the idea of something is true of that thing.
2. I clearly and distinctly perceive that necessary existence is contained in the idea of God.
3. Therefore, God exists.

• Version B:

1. I have an idea of a supremely perfect being, i.e. a being having all perfections.
2. Necessary existence is perfection.
3. Therefore, a supremely perfect being exists.

In the 18th century, Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) further developed Descartes ontological argument by attempting to satisfy a shortcoming in Descartes' proposal, which did not address the coherence of a supremely perfect being. Leibniz reasoned that perfections are compatible as they are unable to be analysed, and therefore are able to exist in a single entity, thereby validating Descartes argument.<ref name=":8" />

More recently, individuals such as Kurt Gödel, Charles Hartshorne, Norman Malcolm, and Alvin Plantinga have proposed ontological arguments, many of which elaborate on or are connected to older ontological arguments presented by individuals such as St. Anselm, Descartes, and Leibniz.<ref name=":8" /> For example, Kurt Godel (1905–1978) used modal logic to elaborate and clarify Leibniz's version of Saint Anselm of Canterbury's ontological proof of the existence of God, known as Godel's Ontological Proof.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Concept of God

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} An individual's perception of the concept of God influences their coping style.<ref name=":12">Template:Cite journal</ref> There are four main religiously affiliated coping mechanisms, as follows:

1. Self-directing style: the individual does not involve God directly and instead individually adopts a problem-solving method.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13">Template:Cite journal</ref>
2. Deferring style: the individual submits their issue and the required problem-solving to God.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" />
3. Collaborative style: both the individual and God are involved in the problem-solving process.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" />
4. Surrender style: the individual works collaboratively with God in the problem-solving process but values God's direction above their own.<ref name=":12" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Bioethics

Medical care

An individual's religious philosophy is important in the consideration of their medical care and medical decisions, and taking that into account improves the quality of their medical treatment.<ref name=":1" /> Particularly in the case of palliative care, understanding different religious philosophical foundations allows for the proper spiritual care to be obtained by the patient.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Religious philosophy is also a necessary consideration in the psychotherapeutic treatment of psychiatric disorders.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Consideration of organ donation post-death is related to an individual's religious philosophy.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Diet

Many religions follow dietary habits. For example, a vegetarian diet is adhered to by individuals who follow Buddhism, Hinduism, Seventh-day Adventist.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":19">Template:Cite journal</ref> The emphasis on sanctity of all life in the ethical doctrine known as ahimsa (non-injury to living beings) in Buddhist and Hindu philosophies encompass human as well as animal life, and influence this vegetarian tradition, with modern influence including the concept of reincarnation.<ref name=":19" />

Fasting of various forms (exclusion of specific foods or food groups, or exclusion of food for certain periods of time) are undertaken by individuals who follow philosophies of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Eastern Orthodox, Islam, Roman Catholicism.<ref name=":1" />

Some religions require for food to be invoked in God's name.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":20">Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, in Islam, meat must be from properly slaughtered 'clean' animals, known as halal, although it is forbidden to consume scavenger animals.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> The religious philosophical purpose behind Islamic dietary laws derived from the commandments of Allah (Quran and Sunnah of Muhammad) is the concept of purity, where Muslims consume what is considered pure and clean to be pure both in a physical and spiritual sense.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21">Template:Cite journal</ref> Another example includes Jewish Kosher laws, where individuals must observe kosher food laws derived from Torah and Mishnah religious scripture texts.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" />

Euthanasia

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Consideration of euthanasia is influenced by an individual's religious philosophy. Much of the opposition towards legislation of euthanasia is due to religious beliefs.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Individuals who express a belief in God as an entity who controls destiny were more opposed to legalisation of euthanasia and physician assisted suicide.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> For example, religions such as Christian Science, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Hinduism, Islam, Jehovah's Witness, Seventh-day Adventist generally do not allow for or practice euthanasia.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Abortion

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Many religions hold philosophical value toward life of all forms and are thus completely against abortion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However abortion is tolerated in specific cases, such as rape or when the mother's life is in danger.<ref name=":1" />

Religions

Religious philosophy influences many aspects of an individual's conception and outlook on life. For example, empirical studies concentrating on the philosophical concept of spirituality at or near the end of life, conducted in India, found that individuals who follow Indian philosophical concepts are influenced by these concepts in their 'perception of spirituality'.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Considerations concerning medical care, death, diet, and pregnancy differ among followers of various religions due to their respective philosophies.<ref name=":1">Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Islamic philosophy

Islamic philosophies forbid the violation of the human body,<ref name=":4">Template:Cite journal</ref> however simultaneously place importance on selflessness;

And whoever saves one - it is as if he had saved mankind entirely. (Quran 5:32)

Organ donation is generally endorsed,<ref name=":1" /> through the principle that necessity overrides prohibition known as al-darurat tubih al-mahzurat.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":14">Template:Cite journal</ref> Objections to organ donation in Islamic religion is mainly originated on cultural foundations rather than religious philosophical ones, with their altruistic principle allowing for exceptions in regard to medical intervention, for example; involving porcine bone grafts and pork insulin.<ref name=":4" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Formal decisions have been made regarding organ donation in association with Islamic teachings, for example, the UK Muslim Law Council in 1996 issued a Ijtihad (religious ruling) that defined organ transplantation within the scope of the Islamic following, and Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly Council in Saudi Arabia in 1988 approving organ donation, with similar formal decisions made in Egypt, Iran, and Pakistan.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Islamic jurisprudence does not condone or allow for an individual to die voluntarily.<ref name=":22">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":23">Template:Cite journal</ref> Islamic philosophies indicate that life is a divine, sacred gift, with Allah deciding how long each individual will live.<ref name=":24">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":23" /> The moment of death, known as ajal, cannot be hastened by any form of passive or active voluntary intervention (e.g. in the form of euthanasia) as this is completely under the control of Allah.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":25">Template:Cite journal</ref> Only Allah has the absolute authority and ability to give life as well as take it away.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":23" /> Islamic philosophies emphasise that life does not belong to the human, but to Allah.<ref name=":24" /> Although the Qur'an states "Nor take life – which Allah has made sacred – except for just cause" (Quran 17:33), hadith literature indicates that despite intolerable pain and suffering, euthanasia is not condoned.<ref name=":22" /> For example, according to Sahih Muslim, in the Battle of Hunayn a Muslim warrior committed suicide due to the pain of his wound however Muhammad declared that this act negated his courage and service to God and doomed him to Hell.<ref name=":22" />

Christian philosophy

Template:Expand section Christian philosophies generally endorse organ donation although reasoning and opinion differ amongst sects.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Christian theologians reference the Bible<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref> in regard to organ donation, particularly;

Heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils: Freely you have received, freely give. (Matthew 10:8)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Greater love hath no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friends. (John 15:13)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web

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Most Christian scholar sanction organ transplantation as it is deemed an act of selflessness, with the Catholic and Protestant Church endorsing organ donation in a joint declaration in 1990, promoting the action as an act of Christian love.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":14" />

Jewish philosophy

Template:Expand section Jewish philosophies hold great importance on the intact burial of the deceased persons due to halakhic foundations.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, much like Islam, altruism in the form of saving a life, known as pikuach nefesh in Jewish law, overrides all other commandments and prohibition;<ref name=":15">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Whoever destroys a soul, it is considered as if he destroyed an entire world. And whoever saves a life, it is considered as if he saved an entire world. (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin 37a)

Organ donation is endorsed by most Jewish scholars.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":15" />

Jewish philosophies in Rabbinical works generally condemn abortion, foeticide, or infanticide as it is viewed as an immoral action on human life.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17">Template:Cite journal</ref> However, 'abortion appears as an option for Jewish women from the earliest sources of the Bible and Mishnaic commentary',<ref name=":18">Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> where the Talmud indicates that a mother's life is prioritised if her life or wellbeing is put at risk by the child, thereby permitting abortion.<ref name=":17" /> Jewish laws do not condone abortion in scenarios involving rape or incest.<ref name=":17" />

Hindu philosophy

Hindu philosophies prohibit abortion, in line with dharmasastras. Hindu philosophy regarding conception involve the belief that both physical and spiritual qualities, like an individual's past karma, exist and enter the human embryo from the moment of conception.<ref name=":16">Template:Citation</ref>

Buddhist philosophy

In Buddhist philosophies, much like Hindu philosophies, there is a morally negative view towards abortion<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> in accordance to the Five Precepts.<ref name=":16" /> However, the intention behind an action is an important consideration,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and therefore many Buddhists accept the idea of abortion if under the pretence of good intention.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Taoist philosophy

Taoist philosophy expresses a desire to find and maintain a balance between populations and their resources.<ref name=":18" /> Therefore, due to these philosophies, population management were of national interests observed in China's 'one child' policy.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, abortion is not encouraged as it would 'corrupt the body and would wrongly negate the body's capacity to give life'.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

See also

Template:Portal Each religion also has unique philosophies that distinguish them from other religions, and these philosophies are guided through the concepts and values behind the teaching pertaining to that belief-system. Different religious philosophies include:

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External links

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