Depiction of Jesus
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The depiction of Jesus in pictorial form dates back to early Christian art and architecture, as aniconism in Christianity was rejected within the ante-Nicene period.<ref name=Irenaeus1>Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF</ref><ref name=Elvira36>Synod of Elvira, 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration', AD 306, Canon 36</ref><ref>Kitzinger, Ernst, "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 8, (1954), pp. 83–150, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, JSTOR</ref><ref name="The Westminster theological journal pp. 35–47">Template:Cite journal</ref> It took several centuries to reach a conventional standardized form for his physical appearance, which has subsequently remained largely stable since that time. Most images of Jesus have in common a number of traits which are now almost universally associated with Jesus, although variants are seen.
The conventional image of a fully bearded Jesus with long hair emerged around AD 300, but did not become established until the 6th century in Eastern Christianity, and much later in the West. It has always had the advantage of being easily recognizable, and distinguishing Jesus from other figures shown around him, which the use of a cruciform halo also achieves. Earlier images were much more varied.
Images of Jesus tend to show ethnic characteristics similar to those of the culture in which the image has been created. Beliefs that certain images are historically authentic, or have acquired an authoritative status from Church tradition, remain powerful among some of the faithful, in Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Roman Catholicism. The Shroud of Turin is now the best-known example, though the Image of Edessa and the Veil of Veronica were better known in medieval times.Template:Not verified in body
The representation of Jesus was controversial in the early period; the regional Synod of Elvira in Spain in 306 states in its 36th canon that no images should be in churches.<ref>Lisa Maurice, Screening Divinity, Edinburgh University Press, Scotland, 2019, p. 30</ref> Later, in the Eastern church, Byzantine iconoclasm banned and destroyed images of Christ for a period, before they returned in full strength. In the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, the followers of John Calvin in particular saw images of Christ as idolatrous and enforced their removal.<ref>Robin M. Jensen, The Cross: History, Art, and Controversy, Harvard University Press, USA, 2017, p. 185</ref> Due to their understanding of the second of the Ten Commandments, most Evangelical Protestants still avoid displaying representations of Jesus in their places of worship.<ref>Cameron J. Anderson, The Faithful Artist: A Vision for Evangelicalism and the Arts, InterVarsity Press, USA, 2016, p. 124</ref><ref>Doug Jones, Sound of Worship, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon-on-Thames, 2013, p. 90</ref>
Early ChristianityEdit
Before ConstantineEdit
Except for Jesus wearing tzitzit—the tassels on a tallit—in Matthew 14:36<ref name=matthew14>Matthew 14:46</ref> and Luke 8:43–44,<ref name="luke8">Luke 8:43–44</ref> there is no physical description of Jesus contained in any of the canonical Gospels. In the Acts of the Apostles, Jesus is said to have manifested as a "light from heaven" that temporarily blinded the Apostle Paul, but no specific form is given. In the Book of Revelation there is a vision the author had of "someone like a Son of Man" in spirit form: "dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet and with a golden sash around his chest. The hair on his head were white like wool, and his eyes were like blazing fire. His feet were like burnt bronze glowing in a furnace (...) His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance" (Revelation 1:12–16, NIV). Use in art of the Revelation description of Jesus has generally been restricted to illustrations of the book itself, and nothing in the scripture confirms the spiritual form's resemblance to the physical form Jesus took in his life on Earth.
In the first-century AD, many Jews understood Exodus 20:4–6 ("Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image") as a proscription against any depiction of humans or animals. Consequently, no figure art was produced for, or by, the Jewish communities in Judea and Galilee during Jesus' lifetime, or in the decades that followed.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> But attitudes towards the interpretation of this Commandment changed through the centuries, and by the third century, some Jewish communities were producing figure art. The frescos decorating the interior of Dura-Europos synagogue (c. 240 AD) depict many scenes from the Tanakh. They are the earliest-known examples of Jewish figure art.<ref>Harold W. Attridge, Gohei Hata, et al. Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism. Wayne, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1992. pp. 283–284.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily furtive and ambiguous, and there was hostility to idols in a group still with a large component of members with Jewish origins, surrounded by, and polemicising against, sophisticated pagan images of gods. Irenaeus (d. c. 202), Clement of Alexandria (d. 215), Lactantius (c. 240–c. 320) and Eusebius of Caesarea (d. c. 339) disapproved of portrayals in images of Jesus.Template:Citation needed The 36th canon of the non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira in 306 AD reads, "It has been decreed that no pictures be had in the churches, and that which is worshipped or adored be not painted on the walls",<ref name="Elvira2">English translation found at Catholic University of America, accessed 5 September 2012 [1]</ref> which has been interpreted by John Calvin and other Protestants as an interdiction of the making of images of Christ.<ref name=Calvin>John Calvin Institutes of the Christian Religion Book 1, Chapter V. Section 6.</ref> The issue remained the subject of controversy until the end of the 4th century.<ref>Hellemo, pp. 3–6, and Cartlidge and Elliott, 61 (Eusebius quotation) and passim. Clement approved the use of symbolic pictograms.</ref>
The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of tombs belonging, most likely, to wealthy<ref>The Second Church: Popular Christianity A.D. 200–400 by Ramsay MacMullen, The Society of Biblical Literature, 2009</ref> Christians in the catacombs of Rome, although from literary evidence there may well have been panel icons which, like almost all classical painting, have disappeared.
Initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the ichthys (fish), the peacock, or an anchor (the Labarum or Chi-Rho was a later development). The staurogram seems to have been a very early representation of the crucified Jesus within the sacred texts. Later personified symbols were used, including Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between Christ's death and resurrection; Daniel in the lion's den; or Orpheus charming the animals.<ref>Orpheus as a symbol for David was already found in hellenized Jewish art. Hall, 66</ref> The image of "The Good Shepherd", a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images, and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus at this period.<ref>Syndicus, 21–3</ref> It continues the classical Kriophoros ("ram-bearer" figure), and in some cases may also represent the Shepherd of Hermas, a popular Christian literary work of the 2nd century.<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 53–55. See also The Two Faces of Jesus by Robin M. Jensen, Bible Review, 17.8, October 2002, and Understanding Early Christian Art by Robin M. Jensen, Routledge, 2000</ref>
Among the earliest depictions clearly intended to directly represent Jesus himself are many showing him as a baby, usually held by his mother, especially in the Adoration of the Magi, seen as the first theophany, or display of the incarnate Christ to the world at large.<ref>Hall, 70–71</ref> The oldest known portrait of Jesus, found in Syria and dated to about 235, shows him as a beardless young man of authoritative and dignified bearing. He is depicted with close-cropped hair and wearing a tunic and pallium—the common male dress for much of Greco-Roman society, and similar to that found in the figure art in the Dura-Europos Synagogue.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The appearance of Jesus had some theological implications. While some Christians thought Jesus should have the beautiful appearance of a young classical hero,<ref>Zanker, 299</ref> and the Gnostics tended to think he could change his appearance at will, for which they cited the Meeting at Emmaus as evidence,<ref>Every, George; Christian Mythology, p. 65, Hamlyn 1988 (1970 1st edn.) Template:ISBN</ref> others including the Church Fathers Justin (d. 165) and Tertullian (d. 220) believed, following Isaiah 53:2, that Christ's appearance was unremarkable:<ref>Syndicus, 92</ref> "he had no form nor comeliness, that we should look upon him, nor beauty that we should delight in him." But when the pagan Celsus ridiculed the Christian religion for having an ugly God in about 180, Origen (d. 248) cited Psalm 45:3: "Gird thy sword upon thy thigh, mighty one, with thy beauty and fairness".<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 53 – this is Psalm 44 in the Latin Vulgate; English bible translations prefer "glory" and "majesty"</ref> Later the emphasis of leading Christian thinkers changed; Jerome (d. 420) and Augustine of Hippo (d. 430) argued that Jesus must have been ideally beautiful in face and body. For Augustine he was "beautiful as a child, beautiful on earth, beautiful in heaven."
From the 3rd century onwards, the first narrative scenes from the Life of Christ to be clearly seen are the Baptism of Christ, painted in a catacomb in about 200,<ref>Schiller, I 132. The image comes from the crypt of Lucina in the Catacombs_of_San_Callisto. There are a number of other 3rd-century images.</ref> and the miracle of the Raising of Lazarus,<ref>Painted over 40 times in the catacombs of Rome, from the early 3rd century on, and also on sarcophagii. As with the Baptism, some early examples are from Gaul. Schiller, I, 181</ref> both of which can be clearly identified by the inclusion of the dove of the Holy Spirit in Baptisms, and the vertical, shroud-wrapped body of Lazarus. Other scenes remain ambiguous—an agape feast may be intended as a Last Supper, but before the development of a recognised physical appearance for Christ, and attributes such as the halo, it is impossible to tell, as tituli or captions are rarely used. There are some surviving scenes from Christ's Works of about 235 from the Dura Europos church on the Persian frontier of the Empire. During the 4th century a much greater number of scenes came to be depicted,<ref>Syndicus, 94–95</ref> usually showing Christ as youthful, beardless and with short hair that does not reach his shoulders, although there is considerable variation.<ref>Syndicus, 92–93, Catacomb images</ref>
Jesus is sometimes shown performing miracles by means of a wand,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> as on the doors of Santa Sabina in Rome (430–32). He uses the wand to change water to wine, multiply the bread and fishes, and raise Lazarus.<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 60</ref> When pictured healing, he only lays on hands. The wand is thought to be a symbol of power. The bare-faced youth with the wand may indicate that Jesus was thought of as a user of magic or wonder worker by some of the early Christians.<ref> The Two Faces of Jesus by Robin M. Jensen, Bible Review, 17.8, Oct 2002</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">New Catholic Encyclopedia: Portraits of the Apostles</ref> No art has been found picturing Jesus with a wand before the 2nd century. Some scholars suggest that the Gospel of Mark, the Secret Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John (the so-called Signs Gospel), portray such a wonder worker, user of magic, a magician or a Divine man.<ref>Jesus, the Magician by Morton Smith, Harper & Row, 1978</ref> Only the Apostle Peter is also depicted in ancient art with a wand.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Research by Lee M. Jefferson however, argued that the depiction of Jesus holding a wand is not an attempt to portray Jesus as a magician or magic user, but rather a continuity of biblical tradition of Moses's staff. It is also argued that early Christians were strong in their rejection of magic and anything related to it.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Another depiction, seen from the late 3rd century or early 4th century onwards, showed Jesus with a beard, and within a few decades can be very close to the conventional type that later emerged.<ref>Zanker, 302</ref> This depiction has been said to draw variously on Imperial imagery, the type of the classical philosopher,<ref>Zanker, 300–303, who is rather dismissive of other origins for the type</ref> and that of Zeus, leader of the Greek gods, or Jupiter, his Roman equivalent,<ref>Syndicus, 93</ref> and the protector of Rome. According to art historian Paul Zanker, the bearded type has long hair from the start, and a relatively long beard (contrasting with the short "classical" beard and hair always given to St Peter, and most other apostles);<ref>Cartlidge and Elliott, 56–57. St Paul often has a long beard, but short hair, as in the catacomb fresco illustrated. St John the Baptist also often has long hair and a beard, and often retains in later art the thick shaggy or wavy long hair seen on some of the earliest depictions of Jesus, and in images of philosophers of the Charismatic type.</ref> this depiction is specifically associated with "Charismatic" philosophers like Euphrates the Stoic, Dio of Prusa and Apollonius of Tyana, some of whom were claimed to perform miracles.<ref>Zanker, 257–266 on the charismatics; 299–306 on the type used for Christ</ref>
After the very earliest examples of c. 300, this depiction is mostly used for hieratic images of Jesus, and scenes from his life are more likely to use a beardless, youthful type.<ref>Zanker, pp. 299, note 48, and 300. [2]. See also Cartlidge and Elliott, 55–61.</ref> The tendency of older scholars such as Talbot Rice to see the beardless Jesus as associated with a "classical" artistic style and the bearded one as representing an "Eastern" one drawing from ancient Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia seems impossible to sustain, and does not feature in more recent analyses. Equally attempts to relate on a consistent basis the explanation for the type chosen in a particular work to the differing theological views of the time have been unsuccessful.<ref>Grabar, 119</ref> From the 3rd century on, some Christian leaders, such as Clement of Alexandria, had recommended the wearing of beards by Christian men.<ref>Zanker, 290</ref> The centre parting was also seen from early on, and was also associated with long-haired philosophers.
After ConstantineEdit
From the middle of the 4th century, after Christianity was legalized by the Edict of Milan in 313, and gained Imperial favour, there was a new range of images of Christ the King,<ref>Syndicus, 92–97, though images of Christ the King are found in the previous century also – Hellemo, 6</ref> using either of the two physical types described above, but adopting the costume and often the poses of Imperial iconography. These developed into the various forms of Christ in Majesty. Some scholars reject the connection between the political events and developments in iconography, seeing the change as a purely theological one, resulting from the shift of the concept and title of Pantocrator ("Ruler of all") from God the Father (still not portrayed in art) to Christ, which was a development of the same period, perhaps led by Athanasius of Alexandria (d. 373).<ref>Hellemo, 7–14, citing K. Berger in particular.</ref>
Another depiction drew from classical images of philosophers, often shown as a youthful "intellectual wunderkind" in Roman sarcophagii; the Traditio Legis image initially uses this type.<ref>Zanker, 299. Zanker has a full account of the development of the image of Christ at pp. 289–307.</ref> Gradually Jesus became shown as older, and during the 5th century the image with a beard and long hair, now with a cruciform halo, came to dominate, especially in the Eastern Empire. In the earliest large New Testament mosaic cycle, in Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (c. 520), Jesus is beardless through the period of his ministry until the scenes of the Passion, after which he is shown with a beard.<ref>The two parts of the cycle are on opposite walls of the nave; Talbot Rice, 157. Bridgeman Library Template:Webarchive</ref>
The Good Shepherd, now clearly identified as Christ, with halo and often rich robes, is still depicted, as on the apse mosaic in the church of Santi Cosma e Damiano in Rome, where the twelve apostles are depicted as twelve sheep below the imperial Jesus, or in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia at Ravenna.
Once the bearded, long-haired Jesus became the conventional representation of Jesus, his facial features slowly began to be standardised, although this process took until at least the 6th century in the Eastern Church, and much longer in the West, where clean-shaven Jesuses are common until the 12th century, despite the influence of Byzantine art. But by the late Middle Ages the beard became almost universal and when Michelangelo showed a clean-shaven Apollo-like Christ in his Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1534–41) he came under persistent attack in the Counter-Reformation climate of Rome for this, as well as other things.<ref>"Last Judgment", Esperanca Camara, Khan Academy; Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1600, 112–114, 118–119 [1940] (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, Template:ISBN</ref>
French scholar Paul Vignon has listed fifteen similarities, or "marks," between most of the icons of Jesus after this point, particularly in the icons of "Christ Pantocrator" ("The all-powerful Messiah").<ref>The Shroud of Christ ("marks") by Paul Vignon, Paul Tice, (2002 – Template:ISBN)</ref>Template:Notinref He claims that these are due to the availability of the Image of Edessa (which he claims to be identical to the Shroud of Turin) to the artists, via Constantinople. <ref>The Shroud of Christ ("Constantinople") by Paul Vignon, Paul Tice, op. cit.</ref>Template:Notinref Certainly images believed to have miraculous origins, or the Hodegetria, believed to be a portrait of Mary from the life by Saint Luke, were widely regarded as authoritative by the Early Medieval period and greatly influenced depictions. In Eastern Orthodoxy the form of images was, and largely is, regarded as revealed truth, with a status almost equal to scripture, and the aim of artists is to copy earlier images without originality, although the style and content of images does in fact change slightly over time.<ref>Grigg, 5–7</ref>
As to the historical appearance of Jesus, in one possible translation of the apostle Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul urges Christian men of first-century Corinth not to have long hair.<ref>Regarding the alternate NIV translation of 1 Corinthians 11:7, and in agreement with modern interpretations of the New Testament, Walvoord and Zuck note, "The alternate translation in the NIV margin, which interprets the man's covering as long hair, is largely based on the view that verse 15 equated the covering with long hair. It is unlikely, however, that this was the point of verse 4." John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck, eds., The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament, "1 Corinthians 11:4", (Wheaton: Victor Books, 1983)</ref> An early commentary by Pelagius (c. AD 354 – c. AD 420/440) says, "Paul was complaining because men were fussing about their hair and women were flaunting their locks in church. Not only was this dishonoring to them, but it was also an incitement to fornication."<ref>Institute for Classical Christian Studies (ICCS) and Thomas Oden, eds., The Ancient Christian Commentary Series, "1 Corinthians 1:4", (Westmont: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005), Template:ISBN. Google Books</ref> SomeTemplate:Who have speculated that Jesus and/or Paul were Nazirites, a temporary vow during which hair is not cut.Template:Citation needed CriticsTemplate:Who emphasize that at the time, long hair on men was considered shameful as Paul states in I Corinthians 11:14. Jesus was a practicing Jew so presumably had a beard.Template:Citation needed
Later periodsEdit
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By the 5th century depictions of the Passion began to appear, perhaps reflecting a change in the theological focus of the early Church.<ref name=Benedetto51>The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History by Robert Benedetto 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 51–53</ref> The 6th-century Rabbula Gospels includes some of the earliest surviving images of the crucifixion and resurrection.<ref name= Benedetto51 /> By the 6th century the bearded depiction of Jesus had become standard in the East, though the West, especially in northern Europe, continued to mix bearded and unbearded depictions for several centuries. The depiction with a longish face, long straight brown hair parted in the middle, and almond shaped eyes shows consistency from the 6th century to the present. Various legends developed which were believed to authenticate the historical accuracy of the standard depiction, such as the image of Edessa and later the Veil of Veronica.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
Partly to aid recognition of the scenes, narrative depictions of the Life of Christ focused increasingly on the events celebrated in the major feasts of the church calendar, and the events of the Passion, neglecting the miracles and other events of Jesus' public ministry, except for the raising of Lazarus, where the mummy-like wrapped body was shown standing upright, giving an unmistakable visual signature.<ref name="Schiller181">Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I by G. Schiller 1971 Lund Humphries, London. figs 150-53, 346-54. Template:ISBN pp. 181–184</ref> A cruciform halo was worn only by Jesus (and the other persons of the Trinity), while plain halos distinguished Mary, the Apostles and other saints, helping the viewer to read increasingly populated scenes.<ref name="Schiller181" />
The period of Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century art was permitted again. The Transfiguration of Jesus was a major theme in the East and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon of the Transfiguration.<ref name=Bigham226>The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography by Steven Bigham 1995 Template:ISBN pp. 226–227</ref> However, while Western depictions increasingly aimed at realism, in Eastern icons a low regard for perspective and alterations in the size and proportion of an image aim to reach beyond earthly reality to a spiritual meaning.<ref>Archimandrite Vasileios of Stavronikita, "Icons as Liturgical Analogies" in Hymn of entry: liturgy and life in the Orthodox church 1997 Template:ISBN pp. 81–90</ref>
The 13th century witnessed a turning point in the portrayal of the powerful Kyrios image of Jesus as a wonder worker in the West, as the Franciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death via the nativity scene as well as the crucifixion.<ref name=Brooke>The image of St Francis by Rosalind B. Brooke 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 183–184</ref><ref name=Raab>The tradition of Catholic prayer by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 Template:ISBN pp. 86–87</ref><ref name=GFinger>The vitality of the Christian tradition by George Finger Thomas 1944 Template:ISBN pp. 110–112</ref> The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions and as the joys of the Nativity of were added to the agony of crucifixion a whole new range of emotions were ushered in, with wide-ranging cultural impact on the image of Jesus for centuries thereafter.<ref name=Brooke /><ref name=GFinger /><ref>La vida sacra: contemporary Hispanic sacramental theology by James L. Empereur, Eduardo Fernández 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 3–5</ref><ref>Philippines by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan-Mercado 2005 Template:ISBN p. 109</ref>
After Giotto, Fra Angelico and others systematically developed uncluttered images that focused on the depiction of Jesus with an ideal human beauty, in works like Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, arguably the first High Renaissance painting.<ref>Experiencing Art Around Us by Thomas Buser 2005 Template:ISBN pp. 382–383</ref><ref>Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper: a Cosmic Drama and an Act of Redemption by Michael Ladwein 2006 pp. 27, 60</ref> Images of Jesus now drew on classical sculpture, at least in some of their poses. However Michelangelo was considered to have gone much too far in his beardless Christ in his The Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel, which very clearly adapted classical sculptures of Apollo, and this path was rarely followed by other artists.
The High Renaissance was contemporary with the start of the Protestant Reformation which, especially in its first decades, violently objected to almost all public religious images as idolatrous, and vast numbers were destroyed. Gradually images of Jesus became acceptable to most Protestants in various contexts, especially in narrative contexts, as book illustrations and prints, and later in larger paintings. Protestant art continued the now-standard depiction of the physical appearance of Jesus. Meanwhile, the Catholic Counter-Reformation re-affirmed the importance of art in assisting the devotions of the faithful, and encouraged the production of new images of or including Jesus in enormous numbers, also continuing to use the standard depiction.
During the 17th century, some writers, such as Thomas Browne in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica criticized depictions of Jesus with long hair. Although some scholars believed that Jesus wore long hair because he was a Nazarite and therefore could not cut his hair, Browne argues "that our Saviour was a Nazarite after this kind, we have no reason to determine; for he drank Wine, and was therefore called by the Pharisees, a Wine-bibber; he approached also the dead, as when he raised from death Lazarus, and the daughter of Jairus.”<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
By the end of the 19th century, new reports of miraculous images of Jesus had appeared and continue to receive significant attention, e.g. Secondo Pia's 1898 photograph of the Shroud of Turin, one of the most controversial artifacts in history, which during its May 2010 exposition it was visited by over 2 million people.<ref>Arthur Barnes, 2003 Holy Shroud of Turin Kessinger Press Template:ISBN pp. 2–9</ref><ref name=WMeacham>William Meacham, The Authentication of the Turin Shroud:An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology, Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Another 20th-century depiction of Jesus, namely the Divine Mercy image based on Faustina Kowalska's reported vision has over 100 million followers.<ref>Catherine M. Odell, 1998, Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy OSV Press Template:ISBN p. 165</ref><ref name="With You Always' page 548">Am With You Always by Benedict Groeschel 2010 Template:ISBN p. 548</ref> The first cinematic portrayal of Jesus was in the 1897 film La Passion du Christ produced in Paris, which lasted 5 minutes.<ref>The Challenge of the Silver Screen (Studies in Religion and the Arts) By Freek L. Bakker 2009 Template:ISBN p. 1</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of early cinema by Richard Abe 2005 Template:ISBN p. 518</ref> Thereafter cinematic portrayals have continued to show Jesus with a beard in the standard western depiction that resembles traditional images.<ref name=BWell526>The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 Template:ISBN p. 526</ref>
A scene from the documentary film Super Size Me showed American children being unable to identify a common depiction of Jesus, despite recognizing other figures like George Washington and Ronald McDonald.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Conventional depictionsEdit
Conventional depictions of Christ developed in medieval art include the narrative scenes of the Life of Christ, and many other conventional depictions:
Common narrative scenes from the Life of Christ in art include:
- Nativity of Jesus in art
- Adoration of the Shepherds
- Adoration of the Magi
- Finding in the Temple
- Baptism of Jesus
- Crucifixion of Jesus
- Descent from the Cross
- Last Judgement
Devotional images include:
- Madonna and child
- Christ in Majesty
- Christ Pantokrator
- Sacred Heart
- Pietà (mother and dead son)
- Lamb of God
- Man of sorrows
- Pensive Christ
Range of depictionsEdit
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Certain local traditions have maintained different depictions, sometimes reflecting local racial characteristics, as do the Catholic and Orthodox depictions. The Coptic Church of Egypt separated in the 5th century, and has a distinctive depiction of Jesus, consistent with Coptic art. The Ethiopian Church, also Coptic, developed on Coptic traditions, but shows Jesus and all Biblical figures with the Ethiopian appearance of its members.Template:Citation needed Other traditions in China, Central Asia and elsewhere generally depict the appearance of Jesus as that of the local population (see the gallery below).Template:Citation needed
In modern times such variation has become more common, but images following the traditional depiction in both physical appearance and clothing are still dominant, perhaps surprisingly so. In Europe, local ethnic tendencies in depictions of Jesus can be seen, for example in Spanish, German, or Early Netherlandish painting, but almost always surrounding figures are still more strongly characterised. For example, the Virgin Mary, after the vision reported by Bridget of Sweden, was often shown with blonde hair, but Christ's is very rarely paler than a light brown.Template:Citation needed
Some medieval Western depictions, usually of the Meeting at Emmaus, where his disciples do not recognise him at first (Luke.24.13–32), showed Jesus wearing a Jewish hat.<ref>A 12th-century English example is in the Getty Museum Template:Webarchive</ref>
In 2001, the television series Son of God used one of three first-century Jewish skulls from a leading department of forensic science in Israel to depict Jesus in a new way.<ref name=G1>Template:Cite news</ref> A face was constructed using forensic anthropology by Richard Neave, a retired medical artist from the Unit of Art in Medicine at the University of Manchester.<ref name=CNN /> The face that Neave constructed suggested that Jesus would have had a broad face and large nose, and differed significantly from the traditional depictions of Jesus in renaissance art.<ref name=BBC>Template:Cite news</ref> Additional information about Jesus' skin color and hair was provided by Mark Goodacre, a New Testament scholar and professor at Duke University.<ref name=BBC />
Using third-century images from a synagogue—the earliest pictures of Jewish people<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>—Goodacre proposed that Jesus' skin color would have been darker and swarthier than his traditional Western image. He also suggested that he would have had short, curly hair and a short cropped beard.<ref name="Popular Mechanics">Template:Cite journal</ref> Although entirely speculative as the face of Jesus,<ref name=CNN>Template:Cite news</ref> the result of the study determined that Jesus' skin would have been more olive-colored than white or black,<ref name=BBC /> and that he would have looked like a typical Galilean Semite. Among the points made was that the Bible records that Jesus's disciple Judas had to point him out to those arresting him in Gethsemane. The implied argument is that if Jesus's physical appearance had differed markedly from his disciples, then he would have been relatively easy to identify.<ref name="Popular Mechanics" />
Miraculous images of JesusEdit
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There are, however, some images which have been claimed to realistically show how Jesus looked. One early tradition, recorded by Eusebius of Caesarea, says that Jesus once washed his face with water and then dried it with a cloth, leaving an image of his face imprinted on the cloth. This was sent by him to King Abgarus of Edessa, who had sent a messenger asking Jesus to come and heal him of his disease. This image, called the Mandylion or Image of Edessa, appears in history in around 525. Numerous replicas of this "image not made by human hands" remain in circulation. There are also icon compositions of Jesus and Mary that are traditionally believed by many Orthodox to have originated in paintings by Luke the Evangelist.
A currently familiar depiction is that on the Shroud of Turin, whose records go back to 1353. Controversy surrounds the shroud and its exact origin remains subject to debate.<ref>William Meacham, The Authentication of the Turin Shroud: An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology, Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983</ref> The Shroud of Turin is respected by Christians of several traditions, including Baptists, Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Orthodox, Pentecostals, and Presbyterians.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is one of the Catholic devotions approved by the Holy See, that to the Holy Face of Jesus, now uses the image of the face on the shroud as it appeared in the negative of the photograph taken by amateur photographer Secondo Pia in 1898.<ref>Joan Carroll Cruz, 1984, Relics OSV Press Template:ISBN p. 49</ref><ref name=Ball635>Ann Ball, 2003 Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices Template:ISBN pp. 239, 635</ref> The image cannot be clearly seen on the shroud itself with the naked eye, and it surprised Pia to the extent that he said he almost dropped and broke the photographic plate when he first saw the developed negative image on it in the evening of 28 May 1898.<ref name=Ball635 />
Before 1898, devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus used an image based on the Veil of Veronica, where legend recounts that Veronica from Jerusalem encountered Jesus along the Via Dolorosa on the way to Calvary. When she paused to wipe the sweat from Jesus's face with her veil, the image was imprinted on the cloth. The establishment of these images as Catholic devotions traces back to Sister Marie of St Peter and the Venerable Leo Dupont who started and promoted them from 1844 to 1874 in Tours France, and Sister Maria Pierina De Micheli who associated the image from the Shroud of Turin with the devotion in 1936 in Milan Italy.
A very popular 20th-century depiction among Roman Catholics and Anglicans is the Divine Mercy image,<ref name="Brockman2011">Template:Cite book</ref> which was approved by Pope John Paul II in April 2000.<ref name="Drake85">Tim Drake, 2002, Saints of the Jubilee, Template:ISBN pp. 85–95</ref> The Divine Mercy depiction is formally used in celebrations of Divine Mercy Sunday and is venerated by over 100 million Catholics who follow the devotion.<ref name="With You Always' page 548" /> The image is not part of Acheiropoieta in that it has been depicted by modern artists, but the pattern of the image is said to have been miraculously shown to Saint Faustina Kowalska in a vision of Jesus in 1931 in Płock, Poland.<ref name="Drake85" />
Faustina wrote in her diary that Jesus appeared to her and asked her to "Paint an image according to the pattern you see".<ref name="Drake85" /><ref name=Torretto84 /> Faustina eventually found an artist (Eugene Kazimierowski) to depict the Divine Mercy image of Jesus with his right hand raised in a sign of blessing and the left hand touching the garment near his breast, with two large rays, one red, the other white emanating from near his heart.<ref name=Torretto84>A Divine Mercy Resource by Richard Torretto 2010 Template:ISBN "The Image of Divine Mercy" pp. 84–107</ref><ref name=Odell63>Catherine M. Odell, 1998, Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy OSV Press Template:ISBN pp. 63–64</ref> After Faustina's death, a number of other artists painted the image, with the depiction by Adolf Hyla being among the most reproduced.<ref>Butler's lives of the saints: the third millennium by Paul Burns, Alban Butler 2001 Template:ISBN p. 252</ref>
Warner Sallman stated that The Head of Christ was the result of a "miraculous vision that he received late one night", proclaiming that "the answer came at 2 A.M., January 1924" as "a vision in response to my prayer to God in a despairing situation."<ref name="Morgan1996">Template:Cite book</ref> The Head of Christ is venerated in the Coptic Orthodox Church,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> after twelve-year-old Isaac Ayoub, who diagnosed with cancer, saw the eyes of Jesus in the painting shedding tears; Fr. Ishaq Soliman of St. Mark's Coptic Church in Houston, on the same day, "testified to the miracles" and on the next day, "Dr. Atef Rizkalla, the family physician, examined the youth and certified that there were no traces of leukemia".<ref name="Meinardus2006" />
With episcopal approval from Bishop Tadros of Port Said and Bishop Yuhanna of Cairo, "Sallman's Head of Christ was exhibited in the Coptic Church", with "more than fifty thousand people" visiting the church to see it.<ref name="Meinardus2006">Template:Cite book</ref> In addition, several religious magazines have explained the "power of Sallman's picture" by documenting occurrences such as headhunters letting go of a businessman and fleeing after seeing the image, a "thief who aborted his misdeed when he saw the Head of Christ on a living room wall", and deathbed conversions of non-believers to Christianity.<ref name="Morgan96">Template:Cite book</ref> As an extraordinarily successful work of Christian popular devotional art,<ref name="Lippy1994">Template:Cite book</ref> it had been reproduced over half a billion times worldwide by the end of the 20th century.<ref name="BlumHarvey2012">Template:Cite book</ref>
ExamplesEdit
- ChristAsSol.jpg
A representation of Jesus as Sol Invictus. Mosaic of the 3rd century on the Tomb of the Julii under St. Peter's Basilica.
- Syriac miniature of Christ.jpg
Christ holding Gospel of John, miniature in Syriac manuscript DIYR 339, a 6th-century gospel book from St. Mary Church, Diyarbakır
- Solidus-Justinian II-Christ b-sb1413.jpg
Jesus depicted on an early 8th-century Byzantine coin. After the Byzantine iconoclasm all coins had Christ on them.
- Restored Mogao Christian painting 3.jpg
Restored Church of the East painting of Jesus Christ, 9th century
- Edgar from Winchester Charter.png
A beardless Christ in the Anglo-Saxon New Minster Charter, Winchester, mid-10th century
- Jesus Image on a Manichaean Temple Banner.jpg
Reconstruction of the enthroned Jesus (Template:Transliteration) image on a Manichaean temple banner from c. 10th-century Qocho (East Central Asia)
- Christ pantocrator daphne1090-1100.jpg
11th-century Christ Pantocrator with the halo in a cross form, used throughout the Middle Ages. Characteristically, he is portrayed as similar in features and skin tone to the culture of the artist.
- Christ All Mercy (13 c.).jpg
"Christ All Mercy" Eastern Orthodox icon
- Jesus as a Manichaean Prophet, 13th century.jpg
Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus, a 12th- or 13th-century Chinese hanging scroll depicting Jesus Christ as the Manichaean prophet Yišō
- Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg
Jesus Christ Pantocrator – 13th-century mosaic from Hagia Sophia
- Jesus Coat of Arms 1.jpg
An unusual 15th-century image of Jesus as a medieval knight bearing an attributed coat of arms based on the Veil of Veronica
- Piero, battesimo di cristo 04.jpg
The Baptism of Jesus Christ, by Piero della Francesca, c. 1448-1450
- Cima da Conegliano, Christus. Dresda.jpg
Portrait of Jesus by Cima da Conegliano (1459–1517)
- Pietro Perugino 040.jpg
Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482
- Kristus som den lidende frelser.jpg
Christ as the Suffering Redeemeer, c. 1488–1500, by Andrea Mantegna
- Nestorian Evangelion (Folio 4v).jpg
A Nestorian "Crucifixion of Jesus", illustration from the Nestorian Evangelion, 16th century
- SAAM-1956.11.21 1.jpg
Palma il Vecchio, Head of Christ, 16th century, Italy
- Michelangelo, Giudizio Universale 03.jpg
Mary and Christ, in The Last Judgement by Michelangelo (1541). This depiction was much criticised.
- Titian 1558 Ancona Crucifixion.jpg
The Crucifixion of Christ, 1558, by Titian
- Transfiguration by Lodovico Carracci.jpg
Transfiguration of Jesus depicting him with Elijah, Moses and three apostles by Carracci, 1594
- Follower of Ribera - Christ among the Doctors.jpg
Jesus, aged 12, Jesus among the Doctors (as a child debating in the temple), 1630 by Jusepe de Ribera
- Noel-coypel-the-resurrection-of-christ-1700.jpg
Resurrection by Noël Coypel, 1700, using a hovering depiction of Jesus
- Trevisani baptism christ.JPG
Trevisani's depiction of the typical baptismal scene with the sky opening and the Holy Spirit descending as a dove, 1723
- Christ, the Pantocrator.jpg
19th-century Russian icon of Christ Pantocrator
- Ethiopia African potrayal of Jesus.JPG
A traditional Ethiopian depiction of Jesus and Mary with distinctively Ethiopian features
- Enrique Simonet - Cabeza de Jesús.jpg
Head of Jesus (1890) by Enrique Simonet
- Christ Pantocrator, Church of the Holy Sepulchre.png
Christ Pantocrator mosaic in the dome above the Katholikon of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem
- Alwan Codex 28 Ethiopian Biblical Manuscript (a).jpg
Crucifixion of Jesus as depicted in the Ethiopian Alwan Codex, 20th century
- Jesus by Georg Hansen.jpg
Jesus Christ as painted in the Template:Ill of Hässleholm, Sweden, by the painter Georg Hansen (1868-1932)
- StJohnsAshfield StainedGlass GoodShepherd-frame crop.jpg
Jesus as Good Shepherd (1932) in stained glass at St John's Ashfield
- PortAuPrinceMural.jpg
A mural (1951) depicting the baptism of Jesus in a typical Haitian rural scenery, Cathédrale de Sainte Trinité, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
- Touchdown Jesus at Notre Dame.jpg
The Word of Life (1964) mural on the side of the Hesburgh Library at the University of Notre Dame
- SantuariodeSanJosejf0188 14.JPG
Depiction of Jesus at the Santuario de San Jose in Mandaluyong, Philippines
SculptureEdit
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- SalvadorDelMundo.jpg
Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo is an iconic landmark that represents San Salvador city. It symbolizes the Transfiguration of Jesus standing on top of Earth as the savior of the world
- CristoreiPortugal.jpg
- Christ the Redeemer - Cristo Redentor.jpg
Christ the Redeemer, the most famous icon in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Chartres2006 092.jpg
- Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg
Michelangelo's Pietà, 1498–99, shows Mary holding the dead body of Jesus
- Cristo de la Concordia 02.jpg
Cristo de la Concordia in Bolivia, claimed to be the largest statue of Jesus ever made
- Cristo del Otero (Palencia).jpg
Cristo del Otero, above Palencia, Spain
- Thorvaldsen Christus.jpg
Bertel Thorvaldsen's Christus, Church of Our Lady, Copenhagen
- Infant Jesus of Prague.jpg
Infant Jesus of Prague, one of several miniature statues of an infant Christ that are much venerated by the faithful
- Lux Mundi, the sculpture of Jesus at Solid Rock Church.jpg
Lux Mundi, a statue of Jesus by Tom Tsuchiya completed in 2012<ref name=WCPO>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Christ the Good Shepherd, Church of the Good Shepherd (Rosemont, Pennsylvania).jpg
- Cristo Negro (Black Christ) - Iglesia de San Felipe (01).jpg
The Cristo Negro, at the Iglesia de San Felipe, Portobelo, Panama.
- Bolestný Kristus (poč. 16. stol.), Cheb.jpg
16th century Template:Ill, Cheb, Czechia.
See alsoEdit
- Jesus look
- Category:Cultural depictions of Jesus
- Crucifixion
- God the Father in Western art
- Holy card
- Ichthys
- List of statues of Jesus
- Ostentatio genitalium
- Perceptions of religious imagery in natural phenomena
- Race and appearance of Jesus
- Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art
- Salvator Mundi
- Veil of Veronica
- Alexamenos graffito
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
- Bühren, Ralf van and Maciej Jan Jasiński, The invisible divine in the history of art. Is Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) still relevant for decoding Christian iconography?, in Church, Communication and Culture 9 (2024), pp. 1–36. DOI: 10.1080/23753234.2024.2322546.
- Cartlidge, David R., and Elliott, J. K. Art and the Christian Apocrypha, Routledge, 2001, Template:ISBN, Google books
- Every, George. Christian Mythology, Hamlyn 1988 (1970 1st edn.) Template:ISBN
- Grabar, André. Christian iconography: a study of its origins, Taylor & Francis, 1968, Template:ISBN Google books
- Grigg, Robert. "Byzantine Credulity as an Impediment to Antiquarianism", Gesta, Vol. 26, No. 1 (1987), pp. 3–9, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the International Center of Medieval Art, JSTOR
- James Hall. A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, 1983, John Murray, London, Template:ISBN
- Hellemo, Geir. Adventus Domini: eschatological thought in 4th-century apses and catecheses. Brill; 1989. Template:ISBN.
- Schiller, Gertrud. Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, Template:ISBN
- Syndicus, Eduard. Early Christian Art; Burns & Oates, London, 1962
- David Talbot Rice, Byzantine Art, 3rd edn 1968, Penguin Books Ltd
- Zanker, Paul. de:Paul Zanker. The Mask of Socrates, The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity, University of California Press, 1995 Online Scholarship editions
External linksEdit
- Pictures of Jesus Perhaps Derived from the Shroud of Turin Template:Webarchive December 2005
- Warner Sallman's Head of Christ: An American Icon
- Is this the real face of Jesus Christ?
- Images of Christ – the Deesis Mosaic of Hagia Sophia
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