Template:Short description Template:About Template:Redirect-distinguish Template:Use Hiberno-English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use shortened footnotes {{#invoke:Infobox military conflict|main}}
The Easter Rising (Template:Langx),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week in April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans against British rule in Ireland with the aim of establishing an independent Irish Republic while the United Kingdom was fighting the First World War. It was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798 and the first armed conflict of the Irish revolutionary period. Sixteen of the Rising's leaders were executed starting in May 1916. The nature of the executions, and subsequent political developments, ultimately contributed to an increase in popular support for Irish independence.
Organised by a seven-man Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Rising began on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916 and lasted for six days.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Members of the Irish Volunteers, led by schoolmaster and Irish language activist Patrick Pearse, joined by the smaller Irish Citizen Army of James Connolly and 200 women of Cumann na mBan seized strategically important buildings in Dublin and proclaimed the Irish Republic. The British Army brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat. There was street fighting on the routes into the city centre, where the rebels slowed the British advance and inflicted many casualties. Elsewhere in Dublin, the fighting mainly consisted of sniping and long-range gun battles. The main rebel positions were gradually surrounded and bombarded with artillery. There were isolated actions in other parts of Ireland; Volunteer leader Eoin MacNeill had issued a countermand in a bid to halt the Rising, which greatly reduced the extent of the rebel actions.
With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the British Army suppressed the Rising. Pearse agreed to an unconditional surrender on Saturday 29 April, although sporadic fighting continued briefly. After the surrender, the country remained under martial law. About 3,500 people were taken prisoner by the British and 1,800 of them were sent to internment camps or prisons in Britain. Most of the leaders of the Rising were executed following courts martial. The Rising brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics, which for nearly fifty years had been dominated by constitutional nationalism. Opposition to the British reaction to the Rising contributed to changes in public opinion and the move toward independence, as shown in the December 1918 election in Ireland which was won by the Sinn Féin party, which convened the First Dáil and declared independence.
Of the 485 people killed,<ref name=necrology/> 260 were civilians, 143 were British military and police personnel, and 82 were Irish rebels, including 16 rebels executed for their roles in the Rising. More than 2,600 people were wounded. Many of the civilians were killed or wounded by British artillery fire or were mistaken for rebels. Others were caught in the crossfire during firefights between the British and the rebels. The shelling and resulting fires left parts of central Dublin in ruins.
BackgroundEdit
The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, abolishing the Irish Parliament and giving Ireland representation in the British Parliament. From early on, many Irish nationalists opposed the union and the continued lack of adequate political representation, along with the British government's handling of Ireland and Irish people, particularly the Great Famine.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The union was closely preceded by and formed partly in response to an Irish uprising – whose centenary would prove an influence on the Easter Rising.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Three more rebellions ensued: one in 1803, another in 1848 and one in 1867. All were failures.<ref name=":5" />
Opposition took other forms: constitutional (the Repeal Association; the Home Rule League) and social (disestablishment of the Church of Ireland; the Land League).<ref>Mansergh, Nicholas, The Irish Question 1840–1921, George Allen & Unwin, 1978, Template:ISBN p. 244</ref> The Irish Home Rule movement sought to achieve self-government for Ireland, within the United Kingdom. In 1886, the Irish Parliamentary Party under Charles Stewart Parnell succeeded in having the First Home Rule Bill introduced in the British parliament, but it was defeated. The Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 was passed by the House of Commons but rejected by the House of Lords.
After the death of Parnell, younger and more radical nationalists became disillusioned with parliamentary politics and turned toward more extreme forms of separatism. The Gaelic Athletic Association, the Gaelic League, and the cultural revival under W. B. Yeats and Augusta, Lady Gregory, together with the new political thinking of Arthur Griffith expressed in his newspaper Sinn Féin and organisations such as the National Council and the Sinn Féin League, led many Irish people to identify with the idea of an independent Gaelic Ireland.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Efn
The Third Home Rule Bill was introduced by British Liberal Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in 1912. Irish Unionists, who were overwhelmingly Protestants, opposed it, as they did not want to be ruled by a Catholic-dominated Irish government. Led by Sir Edward Carson and James Craig, they formed the Ulster Volunteers (UVF) in January 1913.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The UVF's opposition included arming themselves, in the event that they had to resist by force.<ref name=":5" />
Seeking to defend Home Rule, the Irish Volunteers was formed in November 1913. Although sporting broadly open membership and without avowed support for separatism, the executive branch of the Irish Volunteers – excluding leadership – was dominated by the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) who rose to prominence via the organisation, having had restarted recruitment in 1909.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Macardle (1951), pp. 90–92</ref><ref>Foy and Barton, pp. 7–8</ref><ref name=":0" /> These members feared that Home Rule's enactment would result in a broad, seemingly perpetual, contentment with the British Empire.Template:Sfn Another militant group, the Irish Citizen Army, was formed by trade unionists as a result of the Dublin Lock-out of that year.Template:Sfn The issue of Home Rule, appeared to some, as the basis of an "imminent civil war".<ref name=":5" />
Although the Third Home Rule Bill was eventually enacted, the outbreak of the First World War resulted in its implementation being postponed for the war's duration.Template:Sfn It was widely believed at the time that the war would not last more than a few months.Template:Sfn The Irish Volunteers split. The vast majority – thereafter known as the National Volunteers – enlisted in the British Army. The minority that objected – retaining the name – did so in accordance with separatist principles, official policy thus becoming "the abolition of the system of governing Ireland through Dublin Castle and the British military power and the establishment of a National Government in its place"; the Volunteers believed that "England's difficulty" was "Ireland's opportunity".<ref name=":5" />Template:Sfn
Planning the RisingEdit
Template:Multiple image The Supreme Council of the IRB met on 5 September 1914, just over a month after the British government had declared war on Germany. At this meeting, they elected to stage an uprising before the war ended and to secure help from Germany.Template:Sfn Responsibility for the planning of the rising was given to Tom Clarke and Seán Mac Diarmada.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 16</ref> Patrick Pearse, Michael Joseph O'Rahilly, Joseph Plunkett and Bulmer Hobson would assume general control of the Volunteers by March 1915.Template:Sfn
In May 1915, Clarke and Mac Diarmada established a Military Council within the IRB, consisting of Pearse, Plunkett and Éamonn Ceannt – and soon themselves – to devise plans for a rising.<ref>Foy and Barton, pp. 16, 19</ref> The Military Council functioned independently and in opposition to those who considered a possible uprising inopportune.Template:Sfn Volunteer Chief-of-Staff Eoin MacNeill supported a rising only if the British government attempted to suppress the Volunteers or introduce conscription in Ireland, and if such a rising had some chance of success. Hobson and IRB President Denis McCullough held similar views as did much of the executive branches of both organisations.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Military Council kept its plans secret, so as to prevent the British authorities from learning of the plans, and to thwart those within the organisation who might try to stop the rising. The secrecy of the plans was such that the Military Council largely superseded the IRB's Supreme Council with even McCullough being unaware of some of the plans, whereas the likes of MacNeill were only informed as the Rising rapidly approached.<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref> Although most Volunteers were oblivious to any plans their training increased in the preceding year. The public nature of their training heightened tensions with authorities, which, come the next year, manifested in rumours of the Rising.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn Public displays likewise existed in the espousal of anti-recruitment.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> The number of Volunteers also increased: between December 1914 and February 1916 the rank and file rose from 9,700 to 12,215.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Although the likes of the civil servants were discouraged from joining the Volunteers, the organisation was permitted by law.Template:Sfn
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I, Roger Casement and John Devoy went to Germany and began negotiations with the German government and military. Casement – later accompanied by Plunkett – persuaded the Germans to announce their support for Irish independence in November 1914.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 25</ref> Casement envisioned the recruitment of Irish prisoners of war, to be known as the Irish Brigade, aided by a German expeditionary force who would secure the line of the River Shannon, before advancing on the capital.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 105</ref><ref>McNally and Dennis, p. 30</ref>Template:Sfn Neither intention came to fruition, but the German military did agree to ship arms and ammunition to the Volunteers,<ref>Foy and Barton, pp. 25–28</ref> gunrunning having become difficult and dangerous on account of the war.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In late 1915 and early 1916 Devoy had trusted couriers deliver approximately $100,000 from the American-based Irish Republican organization Clan na Gael to the IRB. In January 1916 the Supreme Council of the IRB decided that the rising would begin on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1916.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> On 5 February 1916 Devoy received a coded message from the Supreme Council of the IRB informing him of their decision to start a rebellion at Easter 1916: "We have decided to begin action on Easter Sunday. We must have your arms and munitions in Limerick between Good Friday and Easter Sunday. We expect German help immediately after beginning action. We might have to begin earlier."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Head of the Irish Citizen Army, James Connolly, was unaware of the IRB's plans, and threatened to start a rebellion on his own if other parties failed to act. The IRB leaders met with Connolly in Dolphin's Barn in January 1916 and convinced him to join forces with them. They agreed that they would launch a rising together at Easter and made Connolly the sixth member of the Military Council.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Thomas MacDonagh would later become the seventh and final member.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The death of the old Fenian leader Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa in New York City in August 1915 was an opportunity to mount a spectacular demonstration. His body was sent to Ireland for burial in Glasnevin Cemetery, with the Volunteers in charge of arrangements. Huge crowds lined the route and gathered at the graveside. Pearse (wearing the uniform of the Irish Volunteers) made a dramatic funeral oration, a rallying call to republicans, which ended with the words "Ireland unfree shall never be at peace".Template:Sfn
Build-up to Easter WeekEdit
In early April, Pearse issued orders to the Irish Volunteers for three days of "parades and manoeuvres" beginning on Easter Sunday. He had the authority to do this, as the Volunteers' Director of Organisation. The idea was that IRB members within the organisation would know these were orders to begin the rising, while men such as MacNeill and the British authorities would take it at face value.
On 9 April, the German Navy dispatched the SS Libau for County Kerry, disguised as the Norwegian ship Aud.Template:Sfn It was loaded with 20,000 rifles, one million rounds of ammunition, and explosives. Casement also left for Ireland aboard the German submarine U-19. He was disappointed with the level of support offered by the Germans and he intended to stop or at least postpone the rising.<ref>Foy and Barton, p.56</ref> During this time, the Volunteers amassed ammunition from various sources, including the adolescent Michael McCabe.Template:Sfn
On Wednesday 19 April, Alderman Tom Kelly, a Sinn Féin member of Dublin Corporation, read out at a meeting of the corporation a document purportedly leaked from Dublin Castle, detailing plans by the British authorities to shortly arrest leaders of the Irish Volunteers, Sinn Féin and the Gaelic League, and occupy their premises.Template:Sfn Although the British authorities said the "Castle Document" was fake, MacNeill ordered the Volunteers to prepare to resist.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 47</ref> Unbeknownst to MacNeill, the document had been forged by the Military Council to persuade moderates of the need for their planned uprising. It was an edited version of a real document outlining British plans in the event of conscription.Template:Sfn That same day, the Military Council informed senior Volunteer officers that the rising would begin on Easter Sunday. However, it chose not to inform the rank-and-file, or moderates such as MacNeill, until the last minute.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 48</ref>
The following day, MacNeill got wind that a rising was about to be launched and threatened to do everything he could to prevent it, short of informing the British.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 52</ref> He and Hobson confronted Pearse, but refrained from decisive action as to avoiding instigating a rebellion of any kind; Hobson would be detained by Volunteers until the Rising occurred.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn
The SS Libau (disguised as the Aud) and the U-19 reached the coast of Kerry on Good Friday, 21 April. This was earlier than the Volunteers expected and so none were there to meet the vessels. The Royal Navy had known about the arms shipment and intercepted the SS Libau, prompting the captain to scuttle the ship. Furthermore, Casement was captured shortly after he landed at Banna Strand.<ref>Foy and Barton, pp. 57–58</ref>
When MacNeill learned that the arms shipment had been lost, he reverted to his original position. With the support of other leaders of like mind, notably Bulmer Hobson and The O'Rahilly, he issued a countermand to all Volunteers, cancelling all actions for Sunday. This countermanding order was relayed to Volunteer officers and printed in the Sunday morning newspapers. The order resulted in a delay to the rising by a day,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and some confusion over strategy for those who took part.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref>
British Naval Intelligence had been aware of the arms shipment, Casement's return, and the Easter date for the rising through radio messages between Germany and its embassy in the United States that were intercepted by the Royal Navy and deciphered in Room 40 of the Admiralty.<ref>Ó Broin, p. 138</ref> It is unclear how extensive Room 40's decryptions preceding the Rising were.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> On the eve of the Rising, John Dillon wrote to Redmond of Dublin being "full of most extraordinary rumours. And I have no doubt in my mind that the Clan men – are planning some devilish business – what it is I cannot make out. It may not come off – But you must not be surprised if something very unpleasant and mischievous happens this week".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The information was passed to the Under-Secretary for Ireland, Sir Matthew Nathan, on 17 April, but without revealing its source; Nathan was doubtful about its accuracy.<ref>Ó Broin, p. 79</ref> When news reached Dublin of the capture of the SS Libau and the arrest of Casement, Nathan conferred with the Lord Lieutenant, Lord Wimborne. Nathan proposed to raid Liberty Hall, headquarters of the Citizen Army, and Volunteer properties at Father Matthew Park and at Kimmage, but Wimborne insisted on wholesale arrests of the leaders. It was decided to postpone action until after Easter Monday, and in the meantime, Nathan telegraphed the Chief Secretary, Augustine Birrell, in London seeking his approval.<ref>Ó Broin, pp. 81–87</ref> By the time Birrell cabled his reply authorising the action, at noon on Monday 24 April 1916, the Rising had already begun.<ref>Ó Broin, p. 88</ref>
On the morning of Easter Sunday, 23 April, the Military Council met at Liberty Hall to discuss what to do in light of MacNeill's countermanding order. They decided that the Rising would go ahead the following day, Easter Monday, and that the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army would go into action as the 'Army of the Irish Republic'. They elected Pearse as president of the Irish Republic, and also as Commander-in-Chief of the army; Connolly became Commandant of the Dublin Brigade.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 66</ref> That weekend was largely spent preparing rations and manufacturing ammunition and bombs.Template:Sfn Messengers were then sent to all units informing them of the new orders.<ref name="rte-timeline">Template:Cite news</ref>
The Rising in DublinEdit
Easter MondayEdit
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On the morning of Monday 24 April, about 1,200 members of the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army mustered at several locations in central Dublin. Among them were members of the all-female Cumann na mBan. Some wore Irish Volunteer and Citizen Army uniforms, while others wore civilian clothes with a yellow Irish Volunteer armband, military hats, and bandoliers.<ref>Ward, Alan. The Easter Rising: Revolution and Irish Nationalism. Wiley, 2003. p. 5</ref><ref>Cottrel, Peter. The War for Ireland: 1913–1923. Osprey, 2009. p. 41</ref> They were armed mostly with rifles (especially 1871 Mausers), but also with shotguns, revolvers, a few Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistols, and grenades.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The number of Volunteers who mobilised was much smaller than expected. This was due to MacNeill's countermanding order, and the fact that the new orders had been sent so soon beforehand. However, several hundred Volunteers joined the Rising after it began.Template:Sfn
Shortly before midday, the rebels began to seize important sites in central Dublin. The rebels' plan was to hold Dublin city centre. This was a large, oval-shaped area bounded by two canals: the Grand to the south and the Royal to the north, with the River Liffey running through the middle. On the southern and western edges of this district were five British Army barracks. Most of the rebels' positions had been chosen to defend against counter-attacks from these barracks.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The rebels took the positions with ease. Civilians were evacuated and policemen were ejected or taken prisoner.Template:Sfn Windows and doors were barricaded, food and supplies were secured, and first aid posts were set up. Barricades were erected on the streets to hinder British Army movement.Template:Sfn
A joint force of about 400 Volunteers and the Citizen Army gathered at Liberty Hall under the command of Commandant James Connolly. This was the headquarters battalion, and it also included Commander-in-Chief Patrick Pearse, as well as Tom Clarke, Seán Mac Diarmada and Joseph Plunkett.<ref>McNally and Dennis, p. 41</ref> They marched to the General Post Office (GPO) on O'Connell Street, Dublin's main thoroughfare, occupied the building and hoisted two republican flags. Pearse stood outside and read the Proclamation of the Irish Republic.<ref>Foy and Barton, pp. 192, 195</ref> Copies of the Proclamation were also pasted on walls and handed out to bystanders by Volunteers and newsboys.Template:Sfn The GPO would be the rebels' headquarters for most of the Rising. Volunteers from the GPO also occupied other buildings on the street, including buildings overlooking O'Connell Bridge. They took over a wireless telegraph station and sent out a radio broadcast in Morse code, announcing that an Irish Republic had been declared. This was the first radio broadcast in Ireland.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Elsewhere, some of the headquarters battalion under Michael Mallin occupied St Stephen's Green, where they dug trenches and barricaded the surrounding roads. The 1st battalion, under Edward 'Ned' Daly, occupied the Four Courts and surrounding buildings, while a company under Seán Heuston occupied the Mendicity Institution, across the River Liffey from the Four Courts. The 2nd battalion, under Thomas MacDonagh, occupied Jacob's biscuit factory. The 3rd battalion, under Éamon de Valera, occupied Boland's Mill and surrounding buildings (uniquely, without the presence of Cumann na mBan women whom de Valera expressly excluded).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The 4th battalion, under Éamonn Ceannt, occupied the South Dublin Union and the distillery on Marrowbone Lane. From each of these garrisons, small units of rebels established outposts in the surrounding area.<ref>McNally and Dennis, pp. 39–40</ref>
The rebels also attempted to cut transport and communication links. As well as erecting roadblocks, they took control of various bridges and cut telephone and telegraph wires. Westland Row and Harcourt Street railway stations were occupied, though the latter only briefly. The railway line was cut at Fairview and the line was damaged by bombs at Amiens Street, Broadstone, Kingsbridge and Lansdowne Road.<ref>McKenna, Joseph. Guerrilla Warfare in the Irish War of Independence. McFarland, 2011. p. 19</ref>
Around midday, a small team of Volunteers and Fianna Éireann members swiftly captured the Magazine Fort in the Phoenix Park and disarmed the guards. The goal was to seize weapons and blow up the ammunition store to signal that the Rising had begun. They seized weapons and planted explosives, but the blast was not loud enough to be heard across the city.Template:Sfn The 23-year-old son of the fort's commander was fatally shot when he ran to raise the alarm.<ref>"Children of the Revolution" Template:Webarchive. History Ireland. Volume 1, issue 23 (May/June 2013).</ref>
A contingent under Seán Connolly occupied Dublin City Hall and adjacent buildings.<ref>Foy and Barton, pp. 87–90</ref> They attempted to seize neighbouring Dublin Castle, the heart of British rule in Ireland. As they approached the gate a lone and unarmed police sentry, James O'Brien, attempted to stop them and was shot dead by Connolly. According to some accounts, he was the first casualty of the Rising. The rebels overpowered the soldiers in the guardroom but failed to press further. The British Army's chief intelligence officer, Major Ivon Price, fired on the rebels while the Under-Secretary for Ireland, Sir Matthew Nathan, helped shut the castle gates. Unbeknownst to the rebels, the Castle was lightly guarded and could have been taken with ease.<ref>Foy and Barton, pp. 84–85</ref> The rebels instead laid siege to the Castle from City Hall. Fierce fighting erupted there after British reinforcements arrived. The rebels on the roof exchanged fire with soldiers on the street. Seán Connolly was shot dead by a sniper, becoming the first rebel casualty.<ref name="rte-timeline"/> By the following morning, British forces had re-captured City Hall and taken the rebels prisoner.<ref name="rte-timeline"/>
The rebels did not attempt to take some other key locations, notably Trinity College, in the heart of the city centre and defended by only a handful of armed unionist students.Template:Sfn Failure to capture the telephone exchange in Crown Alley left communications in the hands of the Government with GPO staff quickly repairing telephone wires that had been cut by the rebels.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The failure to occupy strategic locations was attributed to lack of manpower.Template:Sfn In at least two incidents, at Jacob'sTemplate:Sfn and Stephen's Green,Template:Sfn the Volunteers and Citizen Army shot dead civilians trying to attack them or dismantle their barricades. Elsewhere, they hit civilians with their rifle butts to drive them off.<ref>Template:Harvp; Template:Harvp</ref>
The British military were caught totally unprepared by the Rising and their response of the first day was generally un-coordinated. Two squadrons<ref>Townsend, Easter 1916, p.170</ref> of British cavalry were sent to investigate what was happening. They took fire and casualties from rebel forces at the GPO and at the Four Courts.Template:Sfn<ref name="Coffey, Thomas M. pp. 38, 44">Coffey, Thomas M. Agony at Easter: The 1916 Irish Uprising, pp. 38, 44, 155</ref> As one troop passed Nelson's Pillar, the rebels opened fire from the GPO, killing three cavalrymen and two horses<ref name="Coffey, Thomas M. pp. 38, 44"/> and fatally wounding a fourth man. The cavalrymen retreated and were withdrawn to barracks. On Mount Street, a group of Volunteer Training Corps men stumbled upon the rebel position and four were killed before they reached Beggars Bush Barracks.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Although ransacked, the barracks were never seized.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The only substantial combat of the first day of the Rising took place at the South Dublin Union where a piquet from the Royal Irish Regiment encountered an outpost of Éamonn Ceannt's force at the northwestern corner of the South Dublin Union. The British troops, after taking some casualties, managed to regroup and launch several assaults on the position before they forced their way inside and the small rebel force in the tin huts at the eastern end of the Union surrendered.Template:Sfn However, the Union complex as a whole remained in rebel hands. A nurse in uniform, Margaret Keogh, was shot dead by British soldiers at the Union. She is believed to have been the first civilian killed in the Rising.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Three unarmed Dublin Metropolitan Police were shot dead on the first day of the Rising and their Commissioner pulled them off the streets. Partly as a result of the police withdrawal, a wave of looting broke out in the city centre, especially in the area of O'Connell Street (still officially called "Sackville Street" at the time).Template:Sfn
Tuesday and WednesdayEdit
Lord Wimborne, the Lord Lieutenant, declared martial law on Tuesday evening and handed over civil power to Brigadier-General William Lowe. British forces initially put their efforts into securing the approaches to Dublin Castle and isolating the rebel headquarters, which they believed was in Liberty Hall. The British commander, Lowe, worked slowly, unsure of the size of the force he was up against, and with only 1,269 troops in the city when he arrived from the Curragh Camp in the early hours of Tuesday 25 April. City Hall was taken from the rebel unit that had attacked Dublin Castle on Tuesday morning.<ref>Coogan 2001, p. 107</ref>Template:Sfn
In the early hours of Tuesday, 120 British soldiers, with machine guns, occupied two buildings overlooking St Stephen's Green: the Shelbourne Hotel and United Services Club.Template:Sfn At dawn they opened fire on the Citizen Army occupying the green. The rebels returned fire but were forced to retreat to the Royal College of Surgeons building. They remained there for the rest of the week, exchanging fire with British forces.<ref name="rte-timeline"/>
Fighting erupted along the northern edge of the city centre on Tuesday afternoon. In the northeast, British troops left Amiens Street railway station in an armoured train, to secure and repair a section of damaged tracks. They were attacked by rebels who had taken up position at Annesley Bridge. After a two-hour battle, the British were forced to retreat and several soldiers were captured.Template:Sfn At Phibsborough, in the northwest, rebels had occupied buildings and erected barricades at junctions on the North Circular Road. The British summoned 18-pounder field artillery from Athlone and shelled the rebel positions, destroying the barricades. After a fierce firefight, the rebels withdrew.Template:Sfn
That afternoon Pearse walked out into O'Connell Street with a small escort and stood in front of Nelson's Pillar. As a large crowd gathered, he read out a 'manifesto to the citizens of Dublin,' calling on them to support the Rising.<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 180</ref>
The rebels had failed to take either of Dublin's two main railway stations or either of its ports, at Dublin Port and Kingstown. As a result, during the following week, the British were able to bring in thousands of reinforcements from Britain and from their garrisons at the Curragh and Belfast. By the end of the week, British strength stood at over 16,000 men.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their firepower was provided by field artillery which they positioned on the Northside of the city at Phibsborough and at Trinity College, and by the patrol vessel Helga, which sailed up the Liffey, having been summoned from the port at Kingstown. On Wednesday, 26 April, the guns at Trinity College and Helga shelled Liberty Hall, and the Trinity College guns then began firing at rebel positions, first at Boland's Mill and then in O'Connell Street.Template:Sfn Some rebel commanders, particularly James Connolly, did not believe that the British would shell the 'second city' of the British Empire.Template:Sfn<ref>Foy and Barton, p. 181</ref>
The principal rebel positions at the GPO, the Four Courts, Jacob's Factory and Boland's Mill saw little action. The British surrounded and bombarded them rather than assault them directly. One Volunteer in the GPO recalled, "we did practically no shooting as there was no target".Template:Sfn Entertainment ensued within the factory, "everybody merry & cheerful", bar the "occasional sniping", noted one Volunteer.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, where the rebels dominated the routes by which the British tried to funnel reinforcements into the city, there was fierce fighting.
At 5:25 PM a dozen Volunteers, including Eamon Martin, Garry Holohan, Robert Beggs, Sean Cody, Dinny O'Callaghan, Charles Shelley, and Peadar Breslin, attempted to occupy Broadstone railway station on Church Street. The attack was unsuccessful and Martin was injured.<ref name="rte-timeline"/><ref>Witness Statement by Eamon Martin to Bureau of Military History, 1951</ref><ref>Witness Statement of Sean Cody to Bureau of Military History, 1954</ref><ref>Witness Statement of Nicholas Kaftan to Bureau of Military History</ref><ref>Witness Statement of Charles Shelley to Bureau of Military History, 1953</ref>
On Wednesday morning, hundreds of British troops encircled the Mendicity Institution, which was occupied by 26 Volunteers under Seán Heuston. British troops advanced on the building, supported by snipers and machine-gun fire, but the Volunteers put up stiff resistance. Eventually, the troops got close enough to hurl grenades into the building, some of which the rebels threw back. Exhausted and almost out of ammunition, Heuston's men became the first rebel position to surrender. Heuston had been ordered to hold his position for a few hours, to delay the British, but had held on for three days.<ref>O'Brien, Paul. Heuston's Fort – The Battle for the Mendicity Institute, 1916 Template:Webarchive. The Irish Story. 15 August 2012.</ref>
Reinforcements were sent to Dublin from Britain and disembarked at Kingstown on the morning of Wednesday 26 April. Heavy fighting occurred at the rebel-held positions around the Grand Canal as these troops advanced towards Dublin. More than 1,000 Sherwood Foresters were repeatedly caught in a crossfire trying to cross the canal at Mount Street Bridge. Seventeen Volunteers were able to severely disrupt the British advance, killing or wounding 240 men.<ref>Coogan Template:Which, p. 122</ref> Despite there being alternative routes across the canal nearby, General Lowe ordered repeated frontal assaults on the Mount Street position.Template:Sfn The British eventually took the position, which had not been reinforced by the nearby rebel garrison at Boland's Mills, on Thursday,<ref>O'Brien, p. 69</ref> but the fighting there inflicted up to two-thirds of their casualties for the entire week for a cost of just four dead Volunteers.Template:Sfn It had taken nearly nine hours for the British to advance Template:Convert.<ref name="rte-timeline"/>
On Wednesday Linenhall Barracks on Constitution Hill was burnt down under the orders of Commandant Edward Daly to prevent its reoccupation by the British.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Thursday to SaturdayEdit
The rebel position at the South Dublin Union (site of the present-day St. James's Hospital) and Marrowbone Lane, further west along the canal, also inflicted heavy losses on British troops. The South Dublin Union was a large complex of buildings and there was vicious fighting around and inside the buildings. Cathal Brugha, a rebel officer, distinguished himself in this action and was badly wounded. By the end of the week, the British had taken some of the buildings in the Union, but others remained in rebel hands.Template:Sfn British troops also took casualties in unsuccessful frontal assaults on the Marrowbone Lane Distillery.Template:Sfn
The third major scene of fighting during the week was in the area of North King Street, north of the Four Courts. The rebels had established strong outposts in the area, occupying numerous small buildings and barricading the streets. From Thursday to Saturday, the British made repeated attempts to capture the area, in what was some of the fiercest fighting of the Rising. As the troops moved in, the rebels continually opened fire from windows and behind chimneys and barricades. At one point, a platoon led by Major Sheppard made a bayonet charge on one of the barricades but was cut down by rebel fire. The British employed machine guns and attempted to avoid direct fire by using makeshift armoured trucks, and by mouse-holing through the inside walls of terraced houses to get near the rebel positions.<ref>Dorney, John. "The North King Street Massacre, Dublin 1916" Template:Webarchive. The Irish Story. 13 April 2012.</ref> By the time of the rebel headquarters' surrender on Saturday, the South Staffordshire Regiment under Colonel Taylor had advanced only Template:Convert down the street at a cost of 11 dead and 28 wounded.<ref>Coogan Template:Which pp. 152–155</ref> The enraged troops broke into the houses along the street and shot or bayoneted fifteen unarmed male civilians whom they accused of being rebel fighters.<ref>Coogan Template:Which, p. 155, Template:Harvp</ref>
Elsewhere, at Portobello Barracks, an officer named Bowen Colthurst summarily executed six civilians, including the pacifist nationalist activist, Francis Sheehy-Skeffington.Template:Sfn These instances of British troops killing Irish civilians would later be highly controversial in Ireland.
SurrenderEdit
The headquarters garrison at the GPO was forced to evacuate after days of shelling when a fire caused by the shells spread to the GPO. Connolly had been incapacitated by a bullet wound to the ankle and had passed command on to Pearse. The O'Rahilly was killed in a sortie from the GPO. They tunnelled through the walls of the neighbouring buildings in order to evacuate the Post Office without coming under fire and took up a new position in 16 Moore Street. The young Seán McLoughlin was given military command and planned a breakout, but Pearse realised this plan would lead to further loss of civilian life.<ref name="commandant">Template:Cite journal</ref>
On the eve of the surrender, there had been about 35 Cumann na mBan women remaining in the GPO. In the final group that left with Pearse and Connolly, there were three: Connolly's aide de camp, Winifred Carney, who had entered with the original ICA contingent, and the dispatchers and nurses Elizabeth O'Farrell, and Julia Grenan.<ref name=":122">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Eight Women of the Easter Rising The New York Times, 16 March 2016</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
On Saturday 29 April, from this new headquarters, Pearse issued an order for all companies to surrender.Template:Sfn Pearse surrendered unconditionally to Brigadier-General Lowe. The surrender document read:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
In order to prevent the further slaughter of Dublin citizens, and in the hope of saving the lives of our followers now surrounded and hopelessly outnumbered, the members of the Provisional Government present at headquarters have agreed to an unconditional surrender, and the commandants of the various districts in the City and County will order their commands to lay down arms.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
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The other posts surrendered only after Pearse's surrender order, carried by O'Farrell, reached them.Template:Sfn Sporadic fighting, therefore, continued until Sunday, when word of the surrender was got to the other rebel garrisons.Template:Sfn Command of British forces had passed from Lowe to General John Maxwell, who arrived in Dublin just in time to take the surrender. Maxwell was made temporary military governor of Ireland.Template:Sfn
The Rising outside DublinEdit
The Rising was planned to occur across the nation, but MacNeill's countermanding order coupled with the failure to secure German arms hindered this objective significantly.<ref name=":5" /> Charles Townshend contended that serious intentions for a national Rising were meagre, being diminished by a focus upon Dublin – although this is an increasingly contentious notion.<ref name=":7" />
In the south, around 1,200 Volunteers commanded by Tomás Mac Curtain mustered on the Sunday in Cork, but they dispersed on Wednesday after receiving nine contradictory orders by dispatch from the Volunteer leadership in Dublin. At their Sheares Street headquarters, some of the Volunteers engaged in a standoff with British forces. Much to the anger of many Volunteers, MacCurtain, under pressure from Catholic clergy, agreed to surrender his men's arms to the British.Template:Sfn The only violence in County Cork occurred when the RIC attempted to raid the home of the Kent family. The Kent brothers, who were Volunteers, engaged in a three-hour firefight with the RIC. An RIC officer and one of the brothers were killed, while another brother was later executed.Template:Sfn Virtually all rebel family homes were raided, either during or after the Rising.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In the north, Volunteer companies were mobilised in County Tyrone at Coalisland (including 132 men from Belfast led by IRB President Dennis McCullough) and Carrickmore, under the leadership of Patrick McCartan. They also mobilised at Creeslough, County Donegal under Daniel Kelly and James McNulty.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, in part because of the confusion caused by the countermanding order, the Volunteers in these locations dispersed without fighting.Template:Sfn McCartan claimed that the decision by the leadership of the rebellion not to share plans led to poor communication and uncertainty. McCartan wrote that Tyrone Volunteers could have <templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
"...captured Omagh and burned the barracks...we could have had all the men of Tyrone and Derry...in five districts on Sunday, cleared the police barracks on Sunday night...destroyed wires and railways and got into position on Monday night...We could have marched out of Tyrone probably 1,000 strong, but at worst 500, and all well-armed. Is it any wonder I feel like cursing the Dublin men?"{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
AshbourneEdit
In north County Dublin, about 60 Volunteers mobilised near Swords. They belonged to the 5th Battalion of the Dublin Brigade (also known as the Fingal Battalion), and were led by Thomas Ashe and his second in command, Richard Mulcahy. Unlike the rebels elsewhere, the Fingal Battalion successfully employed guerrilla tactics. They set up camp and Ashe split the battalion into four sections: three would undertake operations while the fourth was kept in reserve, guarding camp and foraging for food.<ref name="maguire-fingal">Maguire, Paul. The Fingal Battalion: A Blueprint for the Future? Template:Webarchive. The Irish Sword. Military History Society of Ireland, 2011. pp. 9–13</ref> The Volunteers moved against the RIC barracks in Swords, Donabate and Garristown, forcing the RIC to surrender and seizing all the weapons.<ref name="maguire-fingal"/> They also damaged railway lines and cut telegraph wires. The railway line at Blanchardstown was bombed to prevent a troop train from reaching Dublin.<ref name="maguire-fingal"/> This derailed a cattle train, which had been sent ahead of the troop train.<ref>The 1916 Rebellion Handbook p. 27</ref>
The only large-scale engagement of the Rising, outside Dublin city, was at Ashbourne, County Meath.<ref name="Boyle"/>Template:Sfn On Friday, about 35 Fingal Volunteers surrounded the Ashbourne RIC barracks and called on it to surrender, but the RIC responded with a volley of gunfire.<ref name="maguire-fingal"/> A firefight followed, and the RIC surrendered after the Volunteers attacked the building with a homemade grenade.<ref name="maguire-fingal"/> Before the surrender could be taken, up to sixty RIC men arrived in a convoy, sparking a five-hour gun battle, in which eight RIC men were killed and 18 wounded.<ref name="maguire-fingal"/> Two Volunteers were also killed and five wounded,Template:Sfn and a civilian was fatally shot.Template:Sfn The RIC surrendered and were disarmed. Ashe let them go after warning them not to fight against the Irish Republic again.<ref name="maguire-fingal"/> Ashe's men camped at Kilsalaghan near Dublin until they received orders to surrender on Saturday.Template:Sfn The Fingal Battalion's tactics during the Rising foreshadowed those of the IRA during the War of Independence that followed.<ref name="maguire-fingal"/>
Volunteer contingents also mobilised nearby in counties Meath and Louth but proved unable to link up with the North Dublin unit until after it had surrendered. In County Louth, Volunteers shot dead an RIC man near the village of Castlebellingham on 24 April, in an incident in which 15 RIC men were also taken prisoner.<ref name="Boyle"/>Template:Sfn
EnniscorthyEdit
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In County Wexford, 100–200 Volunteers—led by Robert Brennan, Séamus Doyle and Seán Etchingham—took over the town of Enniscorthy on Thursday 27 April until Sunday.<ref name="Boyle">Boyle, John F. The Irish Rebellion of 1916: a brief history of the revolt and its suppression Template:Webarchive (Chapter IV: Outbreaks in the Country). BiblioBazaar, 2009. pp. 127–152</ref> Volunteer officer Paul Galligan had cycled 200 km from rebel headquarters in Dublin with orders to mobilise.<ref name="dorney-wexford">Dorney, John. The Easter Rising in County Wexford Template:Webarchive. The Irish Story. 10 April 2012.</ref> They blocked all roads into the town and made a brief attack on the RIC barracks, but chose to blockade it rather than attempt to capture it. They flew the tricolour over the Athenaeum building, which they had made their headquarters, and paraded uniformed in the streets.Template:Sfn They also occupied Vinegar Hill, where the United Irishmen had made a last stand in the 1798 rebellion.<ref name="dorney-wexford"/> The public largely supported the rebels and many local men offered to join them.<ref name="dorney-wexford"/>
By Saturday, up to 1,000 rebels had been mobilised, and a detachment was sent to occupy the nearby village of Ferns.<ref name="dorney-wexford"/> In Wexford, the British assembled a column of 1,000 soldiers (including the Connaught Rangers<ref name="Boyle"/>), two field guns and a 4.7 inch naval gun on a makeshift armoured train.<ref name="dorney-wexford"/> On Sunday, the British sent messengers to Enniscorthy, informing the rebels of Pearse's surrender order. However, the Volunteer officers were sceptical.<ref name="dorney-wexford"/> Two of them were escorted by the British to Arbour Hill Prison, where Pearse confirmed the surrender order.Template:Sfn
GalwayEdit
In County Galway, 600–700 Volunteers mobilised on Tuesday under Liam Mellows. His plan was to "bottle up the British garrison and divert the British from concentrating on Dublin".<ref name="dorney-galway">Dorney, John. The Easter Rising in Galway, 1916 Template:Webarchive. The Irish Story. 4 March 2016.</ref> However, his men were poorly armed, with only 25 rifles, 60 revolvers, 300 shotguns and some homemade grenades – many of them only had pikes.<ref name="mccarthy-wrynn">Mark McCarthy & Shirley Wrynn. County Galway's 1916 Rising: A Short History Template:Webarchive. Galway County Council.</ref> Most of the action took place in a rural area to the east of Galway city. They made unsuccessful attacks on the RIC barracks at Clarinbridge and Oranmore, captured several officers, and bombed a bridge and railway line, before taking up position near Athenry.<ref name="mccarthy-wrynn"/> There was also a skirmish between rebels and an RIC mobile patrol at Carnmore crossroads. A constable, Patrick Whelan, was shot dead after he had called to the rebels: "Surrender, boys, I know ye all".<ref name="dorney-galway"/>
On Wednesday, Template:HMS arrived in Galway Bay and shelled the countryside on the northeastern edge of Galway.<ref name="mccarthy-wrynn"/> The rebels retreated southeast to Moyode, an abandoned country house and estate. From here they set up lookout posts and sent out scouting parties.<ref name="mccarthy-wrynn"/> On Friday, Template:HMS landed 200 Royal Marines and began shelling the countryside near the rebel position.<ref name="dorney-galway"/>Template:Sfn The rebels retreated further south to Limepark, another abandoned country house. Deeming the situation to be hopeless, they dispersed on Saturday morning. Many went home and were arrested following the Rising, while others, including Mellows, went "on the run". By the time British reinforcements arrived in the west, the Rising there had already disintegrated.Template:Sfn
Limerick and ClareEdit
In County Limerick, 300 Irish Volunteers assembled at Glenquin Castle near Killeedy, but they did not take any military action.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In County Clare, Micheal Brennan marched with 100 Volunteers (from Meelick, Oatfield, and Cratloe) to the River Shannon on Easter Monday to await orders from the Rising leaders in Dublin, and weapons from the expected Casement shipment. However, neither arrived and no actions were taken.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
CasualtiesEdit
The Easter Rising resulted in at least 485 deaths, according to the Glasnevin Trust.<ref name=necrology>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=Glasnevin>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=sh>Template:Cite book</ref> Of those killed:
- 260 (about 54%) were civilians
- 126 (about 26%) were U.K. forces (120 U.K. military personnel, 5 Volunteer Training Corps members, and one Canadian soldier)
- 35 – Irish Regiments:-
- 11 – Royal Dublin Fusiliers
- 10 – Royal Irish Rifles
- 9 – Royal Irish Regiment
- 2 – Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
- 2 – Royal Irish Fusiliers
- 1 – Leinster Regiment
- 74 – British Regiments:-
- 29 – Sherwood Foresters
- 15 – South Staffordshire
- 2 – North Staffordshire
- 1 – Royal Field Artillery
- 4 – Royal Engineers
- 5 – Army Service Corps
- 10 – Lancers
- 7 – 8th Hussars
- 2 – 2nd King Edwards Horse
- 3 – Yeomanry
- 1 – Royal Navy
- 35 – Irish Regiments:-
- 82 (about 16%) were Irish rebel forces (64 Irish Volunteers, 15 Irish Citizen Army and 3 Fianna Éireann)
- 17 (about 4%) were police<ref name=necrology/>
- 14 – Royal Irish Constabulary
- 3 – Dublin Metropolitan Police
More than 2,600 were wounded; including at least 2,200 civilians and rebels, at least 370 British soldiers and 29 policemen.<ref>Foy and Barton, page 325</ref> All 16 police fatalities and 22 of the British soldiers killed were Irishmen.<ref>1916 Rebellion Handbook, pp. 50–55</ref> About 40 of those killed were children (under 17 years old),<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> four of whom were members of the rebel forces.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The number of casualties each day steadily rose, with 55 killed on Monday and 78 killed on Saturday.<ref name=necrology/> The British Army suffered their biggest losses in the Battle of Mount Street Bridge on Wednesday when at least 30 soldiers were killed. The rebels also suffered their biggest losses on that day. The RIC suffered most of their casualties in the Battle of Ashbourne on Friday.<ref name=necrology/>
The majority of the casualties, both killed and wounded, were civilians. Most of the civilian casualties and most of the casualties overall were caused by the British Army.Template:Sfn This was due to the British using artillery, incendiary shells and heavy machine guns in built-up areas, as well as their "inability to discern rebels from civilians".Template:Sfn One Royal Irish Regiment officer recalled, "they regarded, not unreasonably, every one they saw as an enemy, and fired at anything that moved".Template:Sfn Many other civilians were killed when caught in the crossfire. Both sides, British and rebel, also shot civilians deliberately on occasion; for not obeying orders (such as to stop at checkpoints), for assaulting or attempting to hinder them, and for looting.Template:Sfn There were also instances of British troops killing unarmed civilians out of revenge or frustration: notably in the North King Street Massacre, where fifteen were killed, and at Portobello Barracks, where six were shot.Template:Sfn Furthermore, there were incidents of friendly fire. On 29 April, the Royal Dublin Fusiliers under Company Quartermaster Sergeant Robert Flood shot dead two British officers and two Irish civilian employees of the Guinness Brewery after he decided they were rebels. Flood was court-martialled for murder but acquitted.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
According to the historian Fearghal McGarry, the rebels attempted to avoid needless bloodshed. Desmond Ryan stated that Volunteers were told "no firing was to take place except under orders or to repel attack".Template:Sfn Aside from the engagement at Ashbourne, policemen and unarmed soldiers were not systematically targeted, and a large group of policemen was allowed to stand at Nelson's Pillar throughout Monday.Template:Sfn McGarry writes that the Irish Citizen Army "were more ruthless than Volunteers when it came to shooting policemen" and attributes this to the "acrimonious legacy" of the Dublin Lock-out.Template:Sfn
The vast majority of the Irish casualties were buried in Glasnevin Cemetery in the aftermath of the fighting.<ref name=necrology/><ref name=Glasnevin/> British families came to Dublin Castle in May 1916 to reclaim the bodies of British soldiers, and funerals were arranged. Soldiers whose bodies were not claimed were given military funerals in Grangegorman Military Cemetery.
AftermathEdit
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Arrests and executionsTemplate:AnchorEdit
In the immediate aftermath, the Rising was commonly described as the "Sinn Féin Rebellion",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> reflecting a popular belief that Sinn Féin, a separatist organisation that was neither militant nor republican, was behind it.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> General Maxwell, for example, signalled his intention "to arrest all dangerous Sinn Feiners", including "those who have taken an active part in the movement although not in the present rebellion".Template:Sfn
A total of 3,430 men and 79 women were arrested, including 425 people for looting – roughly, 1,500 of these arrests accounted for the rebels.Template:Sfn<ref name=foy294>Foy and Barton, pp. 294–295</ref>Template:Sfn Detainees were overwhelmingly young, Catholic and religious.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn 1,424 men and 73 women were released after a few weeks of imprisonment; those interned without trial in England and Wales (see below) were released on Christmas Eve, 1916;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> the remaining majority of convicts were held until June 1917.Template:Sfn
A series of courts martial began on 2 May, in which 187 people were tried. Controversially, Maxwell decided that the courts martial would be held in secret and without a defence, which Crown law officers later ruled to have been illegal.<ref name="foy294" /> Some of those who conducted the trials had commanded British troops involved in suppressing the Rising, a conflict of interest that the Military Manual prohibited.<ref name="foy294" /> Only one of those tried by courts martial was a woman, Constance Markievicz, who was also the only woman to be kept in solitary confinement.<ref name="foy294" />Template:Efn Ninety were sentenced to death. Fifteen of those (including all seven signatories of the Proclamation) had their sentences confirmed by Maxwell and fourteen were executed by firing squad at Kilmainham Gaol between 3 and 12 May.
Maxwell stated that only the "ringleaders" and those proven to have committed "cold-blooded murder" would be executed. However, some of those executed were not leaders and did not kill anyone, such as Willie Pearse and John MacBride; Thomas Kent did not come out at all—he was executed for the killing of a police officer during the raid on his house the week after the Rising. The most prominent leader to escape execution was Éamon de Valera, Commandant of the 3rd Battalion, who did so partly because of his American birth.<ref name="Oxford">Template:Cite book</ref> Hobson went into hiding, re-emerging after the June amnesty, largely to scorn.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
Most of the executions took place over a ten-day period:
- 3 May: Patrick Pearse, Thomas MacDonagh and Thomas Clarke
- 4 May: Joseph Plunkett, William Pearse, Edward Daly and Michael O'Hanrahan
- 5 May: John MacBride
- 8 May: Éamonn Ceannt, Michael Mallin, Seán Heuston and Con Colbert
- 12 May: James Connolly and Seán Mac Diarmada
The arrests greatly affected hundreds of families and communities; anti-English sentiment developed among the public, as separatists declared the arrests as indicative of a draconian approach.<ref name=":5" />Template:Sfn The public, at large, feared that the response was "an assault on the entirety of the Irish national cause".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This radical transformation was recognised in the moment and had become a point of concern among British authorities; after Connolly's execution, the remaining death sentences were commuted to penal servitude.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Foy and Barton, p. 325</ref> Growing support for republicanism can be found as early as June 1916; imprisonment largely failed to deter militants – interned rebels would proceed to fight at higher rates than those who weren't – who thereafter quickly reorganised the movement.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Frongoch prison campEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Under Regulation 14B of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 1,836 men were interned at internment camps and prisons in England and Wales.<ref name="foy294" /> As urban areas were becoming the nexus for republicanism, Internees were largely from such areas.<ref name=":0" />Template:Efn Many Internees had not taken part in the Rising; many thereafter became sympathetic to the nationalist cause.<ref name=":4" />Template:Sfn
Internees occupied themselves with the likes of lectures, craftwork, music and sports. These activities – which included games of Gaelic football, crafting of Gaelic symbols, and lessons in Irish – regularly had a nationalist character and the cause itself developed a sense of cohesion within the camps.<ref name=":10" />Template:Sfn The military studies included discussion of the Rising.<ref name="wales">Template:Cite journal</ref> Internment lasted until December of that year with releases having started in July.<ref name="wales" /> Martial law had ceased by the end of November.<ref name="press" />
Casement was tried in London for high treason and hanged at Pentonville Prison on 3 August.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
British atrocitiesEdit
On Tuesday 25 April, Dubliner Francis Sheehy Skeffington, a pacifist nationalist activist, was arrested and then taken as hostage and human shield by Captain John Bowen-Colthurst; that night Bowen-Colthurst shot dead a teenage boy.<ref name=":11">Template:Cite journal</ref> Skeffington was executed the next day – alongside two journalists.<ref name=":11" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Two hours later, Bowen-Colthurst captured the Labour Party councillor and IRB lieutenant, Richard O'Carroll and had him shot in the street.<ref>Gerald Keatinge. Some experiences of a Cadet during the Irish Rebellion of Easter Week, 1916. Unpublished. Quoted in Neil Richardson's According to their lights. Collins Press, 2015. p.178.</ref> Major Sir Francis Vane raised concerns over Bowen-Colthurst's actions and saw to him being court martialled. Bowen-Colthurst was found guilty but insane and was sentenced to an insane asylum. Owing to political pressure, an inquiry soon transpired, revealing the murders and their cover-up.<ref name=":11" /> The killing of Skeffington and others provoked outrage among citizens.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The other incident was the "North King Street Massacre". On the night of 28–29 April, British soldiers of the South Staffordshire Regiment, under Colonel Henry Taylor, had burst into houses on North King Street and killed fifteen male civilians whom they accused of being rebels. The soldiers shot or bayoneted the victims, and then secretly buried some of them in cellars or backyards after robbing them. The area saw some of the fiercest fighting of the Rising and the British had taken heavy casualties for little gain. Maxwell attempted to excuse the killings and argued that the rebels were ultimately responsible. He claimed that "the rebels wore no uniform" and that the people of North King Street were rebel sympathisers. Maxwell concluded that such incidents "are absolutely unavoidable in such a business as this" and that "under the circumstance the troops [...] behaved with the greatest restraint". A private brief, prepared for the Prime Minister, said the soldiers "had orders not to take any prisoners" but took it to mean they were to shoot any suspected rebel. The City Coroner's inquest found that soldiers had killed "unarmed and unoffending" residents. The military court of inquiry ruled that no specific soldiers could be held responsible, and no action was taken.<ref>Template:Harvp; Template:Harvp; Template:Harvp</ref><ref>Coogan Template:Which, pp. 152–155</ref><ref>Dorney, John. "The North King Street Massacre, Dublin 1916" Template:Webarchive. The Irish Story. 13 April 2012.</ref>
InquiryEdit
A Royal Commission was set up to enquire into the causes of the Rising. It began hearings on 18 May under the chairmanship of Lord Hardinge of Penshurst. The Commission heard evidence from Sir Matthew Nathan, Augustine Birrell, Lord Wimborne, Sir Neville Chamberlain (Inspector-General of the Royal Irish Constabulary), General Lovick Friend, Major Ivor Price of Military Intelligence and others.<ref>Ó Broin, Leon, Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising pp. 153–159</ref> The report, published on 26 June, was critical of the Dublin administration, saying that "Ireland for several years had been administered on the principle that it was safer and more expedient to leave the law in abeyance if collision with any faction of the Irish people could thereby be avoided."Template:Sfn Birrell and Nathan had resigned immediately after the Rising. Wimborne resisted the pressure to resign, but was recalled to London by Asquith.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He was re-appointed in July 1916.Template:Sfn Chamberlain also resigned.
Reaction of the Dublin publicEdit
At first, many Dubliners were bewildered by the outbreak of the Rising.Template:Sfn James Stephens, who was in Dublin during the week, thought, "None of these people were prepared for Insurrection. The thing had been sprung on them so suddenly they were unable to take sides."Template:SfnTemplate:Efn Eyewitnesses compared the ruin of Dublin with the destruction of towns in Europe in the war: the physical damage, which included over ninety fires, was largely confined to Sackville Street.Template:Sfn<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref> In the immediate aftermath, the Irish government was in disarray.Template:Sfn
There was great hostility towards the Volunteers in some parts of the city which escalated to physical violence in some instances.Template:Sfn Historian Keith Jeffery noted that most of the opposition came from the dependents of British Army personnel.Template:Sfn The death and destruction, which resulted in disrupted trade, considerable looting and unemployment, contributed to the antagonism of the Volunteers, who were denounced as "murderers" and "starvers of the people" – the monetary consequences of the Rising were estimated to be at £2,500,000.Template:SfnmTemplate:Efn International aid was supplied to residents – nationalists aided the dependents of Volunteers.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref> The British Government compensated the consequences to the sum of £2,500,000.<ref name=":1" />
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Support for the rebels did exist among Dubliners, expressed through both crowds cheering at prisoners and reverent silence.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn With martial law seeing this expression prosecuted, many would-be supporters elected to remain silent although "a strong undercurrent of disloyalty" was still felt.Template:Sfn Drawing upon this support, and amidst the deluge of nationalist ephemera, the significantly popular Catholic Bulletin eulogised Volunteers killed in action and implored readers to donate; entertainment was offered as an extension of those intentions, targeting local sectors to great success.<ref name=":3" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn The BulletinTemplate:'s Catholic character allowed it to evade the widespread censorship of press and seizure of republican propaganda; it therefore exposed many unaware readers to such propaganda.<ref name="press"/>
Rise of Sinn FéinEdit
A meeting called by Count Plunkett on 19 April 1917 led to the formation of a broad political movement under the banner of Sinn FéinTemplate:Sfn which was formalised at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis of 25 October 1917. The Conscription Crisis of 1918 further intensified public support for Sinn Féin before the general elections to the British Parliament on 14 December 1918, which resulted in a landslide victory for Sinn Féin, winning 73 seats out of 105, whose Members of Parliament (MPs) gathered in Dublin on 21 January 1919 to form Dáil Éireann and adopt the Declaration of Independence.Template:Sfn
During that election, they drew directly upon the Rising and their popularity was significantly accreditable to that association, one that accrued political prestige until the end of the century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Many participants of the Rising would soon assume electoral positions.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Sinn Féin served as an alternative to the Irish Parliamentary Party whose support for British establishments alienated voters.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Sinn Féin would become closely aligned with the Irish Republican Army, who sought to continue the IRB's ideals and waged armed conflict against British forces.<ref name=":4" />
LegacyEdit
1916 – containing both the Rising and the Battle of the Somme, events paramount to the memory of Irish Republicans and Ulster Unionists, respectively – had a profound effect on Ireland and is remembered accordingly.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn The Rising was among the events that ended colonial rule in Ireland, succeeded by the Irish War of Independence.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The legacy of the Rising possess many dimensions although the declaration of the Republic and the ensuing executions remain focal points.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Annual parades in celebration of the Rising occurred for many years, however, ceased after The Troubles in Northern Ireland began, being seen as supportive of republican paramilitary violence – the Rising is a common feature of republican murals in Northern Ireland.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="murals">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn These commemorations celebrated the Rising as the origin of the Irish state, a stance reiterated through extensive analysis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Unionists contend that the Rising was an illegal attack on the British State that should not be celebrated.<ref name="Hancock" /> Revivalism of the parades has inspired significant public debate, although the centenary of the Rising, which featured the likes of ceremonies and memorials, was largely successful and praised for its sensitivity.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn
The leaders of the Rising were "instantly apotheosized" and remembrance was situated within a larger republican tradition of claimed martyrdom – the Catholic Church would contend this narrative as the foundational myth of the Irish Free State, assuming a place within the remembrance as an association between republicanism and Catholicism grew.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":10">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn The "Pearsean combination of Catholicism, Gaelicism, and spiritual nationalism" would become dominant within republicanism, the ideas gaining a quasi-religiosity, whilst helping unify later strands thereof.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Within the Free State, the Rising was sanctified by officials, positioned as a "highly disciplined military operation".Template:Sfn Historians largely agree that the Rising succeeded by offering a symbolic display of sacrifice, while the military action was a considerable failure.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn As Monk Gibbon remarked, the "shots from khaki-uniformed firing parties did more to create the Republic of Ireland than any shot fired by a Volunteer in the course of Easter week".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Literature surrounding the Rising was significant: MacDonagh, Plunkett, and Pearse were themselves poets, whose ideals were granted a spiritual dimension in their work; Arnold Bax, Francis Ledwidge, George William Russell and W. B. Yeats responded through verse that ranged from endorsement to elegies.<ref name="oxford">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Efn Although James Joyce was ambivalent to the insurgence, metaphors of and imagery consistent with the Rising appear in his later work.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> Hugh Leonard, Denis Johnston, Tom Murphy, Roddy Doyle and Sorley MacLean are among writers would later invoke the Rising.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Now extensively dramatised, its theatricality was identified in the moment and has been stressed in its remembrance.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Literary and political evocation position the Rising as a "watershed moment" central to Irish history.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Black, Basque, Breton, Catalan and Indian nationalists have drawn upon the Rising and its consequences.<ref name=":9" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn For the latter, Jawaharlal Nehru noted, the symbolic display was the appeal, that of the transcendent, "invincible spirit of a nation"; such was broadly appealing in America, where diasporic, occasionally socialist, nationalism occurred.<ref name=":9">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn Vladimir Lenin was effusive, ascribing its anti-imperialism a singular significance within geopolitics – his only misgiving was its estrangement from the broader wave of revolution occurring.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Efn
During the Troubles, significant revisionism of the Rising occurred. Revisionists contended that it was not a "heroic drama" as thought but rather informed the violence transpiring, by having legitimised a "cult of 'blood sacrifice'".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn With the advent of a Provisional IRA ceasefire and the beginning of what became known as the Peace Process during the 1990s, the government's view of the Rising grew more positive and in 1996 an 80th anniversary commemoration at the Garden of Remembrance in Dublin was attended by the Taoiseach and leader of Fine Gael, John Bruton.<ref>Reconstructing the Easter Rising Template:Webarchive, Colin Murphy, The Village, 16 February 2006</ref>
- GPO Easter Rising Plaque.jpg
Plaque commemorating the Easter Rising at the General Post Office, Dublin, with the Irish text in Gaelic script, and the English text in regular Latin script
- Cobh Volunteers 1916 memorial.jpg
Memorial in Cobh, County Cork, to the Volunteers from that town
- Offaly 1916 memorial.jpg
Memorial in Clonmacnoise commemorating men of County Offaly (then King's County) who fought in 1916: James Kenny, Kieran Kenny and Paddy McDonnell are named
- Clonegal flag.jpg
Flag and copy of the Proclamation in Clonegal
In popular cultureEdit
- "Easter, 1916", a poem by the poet and playwright W. B. Yeats, published in 1921.
- "The Foggy Dew" is a song by Canon Charles O'Neill, composed during the Irish War of Independence, that eulogises the rebels of the Easter Rising.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- The Plough and the Stars is a 1926 play by Seán O'Casey that takes place during the Easter Rising.
- Insurrection is a 1950 novel by Liam O'Flaherty that takes place during the Rising.
- The Red and the Green is a 1965 novel by Iris Murdoch that covers the events leading up to and during the Easter Rising.
- Insurrection is an eight-part 1966 docudrama made by Telefís Éireann for the 50th anniversary of the Rising. It was rebroadcast during the centenary celebrations in 2016.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- "Grace" is a 1985 song about the marriage of Joseph Plunkett to Grace Gifford in Kilmainham Gaol before his execution.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- 1916, A Novel of the Irish Rebellion is a 1998 historical novel by Morgan Llywelyn.
- A Star Called Henry is a 1999 novel by Roddy Doyle that partly recounts the Easter Rising through the involvement of the novel's protagonist Henry Smart.
- At Swim, Two Boys is a 2001 novel by Irish writer Jamie O'Neill, set in Dublin before and during the 1916 Easter Rising.
- Rebel Heart, is a 2001 BBC miniseries on the life of a (fictional) nationalist from the Rising through the Irish Civil War.
- Blood Upon the Rose is a 2009 graphic novel by Gerry Hunt depicting the events of the Easter Rising.<ref name=puesocc>Edward Madigan, "Review of Gerry Hunt's 'Blood Upon the Rose', part one" Template:Webarchive, Pue's Occurrences, 2 November 2009</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- 1916 Seachtar na Cásca is a 2010 Irish TV documentary series based on the Easter Rising, telling about seven signatories of the rebellion.
- The Dream of the Celt is a 2012 novel by the Nobel Prize winner in Literature Mario Vargas Llosa, based on the life and death of Roger Casement including his involvement with the Rising.
- Rebellion is a 2016 mini-series about the Easter Rising.
- 1916 is a 2016 three-part documentary miniseries about the Easter Rising narrated by Liam Neeson.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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- Penance is a 2018 Irish film set primarily in Donegal in 1916 and in Derry in 1969, in which the Rising is also featured.
See alsoEdit
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
SourcesEdit
- Augusteijn, Joost (ed.)The Memoirs of John M. Regan, a Catholic Officer in the RIC and RUC, 1909–48, Witnessed Rising, Template:ISBN.
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- Coogan, Tim Pat, 1916: The Easter Rising (2001) Template:ISBN
- Coogan, Tim Pat, The IRA (2nd ed. 2000), Template:ISBN
- De Rosa, Peter. Rebels: The Irish Rising of 1916. Fawcett Columbine, New York. 1990. Template:ISBN
- Eberspächer, Cord/Wiechmann, Gerhard: "Erfolg Revolution kann Krieg entscheiden". Der Einsatz von S.M.H. LIBAU im irischen Osteraufstand 1916 ("Successful revolution may decide war". The use of S.M.H. LIBAU in the Irish Easter rising 1916), in: Schiff & Zeit, Nr. 67, Frühjahr 2008, S. 2–16.
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- Foster, R. F. Vivid Faces: The Revolutionary Generation in Ireland, 1890–1923 (2015) excerpt Template:Webarchive
- Foy, Michael and Barton, Brian, The Easter Rising Template:ISBN
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- Greaves, C. Desmond, The Life and Times of James Connolly
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- Kostick, Conor & Collins, Lorcan, The Easter Rising, A Guide to Dublin in 1916 Template:ISBN
- Lyons, F.S.L., Ireland Since the Famine Template:ISBN
- Macardle, Dorothy, The Irish Republic (Dublin 1951)
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- "Patrick Pearse and Patriotic Soteriology," in Yonah Alexander and Alan O'Day, eds, The Irish Terrorism Experience, (Aldershot: Dartmouth) 1991
- Ó Broin, Leon, Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1970
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Further readingEdit
- Bunbury, Turtle. Easter Dawn – The 1916 Rising (Mercier Press, 2015) Template:ISBN
- McCarthy, Mark. Ireland's 1916 Rising: Explorations of History-Making, Commemoration & Heritage in Modern Times (2013), historiography excerpt
- McKeown, Eitne, 'A Family in the Rising' Dublin Electricity Supply Board Journal 1966.
- Murphy, John A., Ireland in the Twentieth Century
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- Purdon, Edward, The 1916 Rising
- Shaw, Francis, S.J., "The Canon of Irish History: A Challenge", in Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, LXI, 242, 1972, pp. 113–52
External linksEdit
- Easter 1916 – Digital Heritage Website
- The 1916 Rising – an Online Exhibition. National Library of Ireland
- The Letters of 1916 – Crowdsourcing Project Trinity College Dublin
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- Lillian Stokes (1878–1955): account of the 1916 Easter Rising
- Primary and secondary sources relating to the Easter Rising (Sources database, National Library of Ireland)
- Easter Rising site and walking tour of 1916 Dublin
- News articles and letters to the editor in The Age, 27 April 1916
- The 1916 Rising by Norman Teeling Template:Webarchive a 10-painting suite acquired by An Post for permanent display at the General Post Office (Dublin)
- The Easter Rising – BBC History
- The Irish Story archive on the Rising
- Easter Rising website
- The Discussion On Self-Determination Summed Up Lenin's discussion of the importance of the rebellion appears in Section 10: The Irish Rebellion of 1916
- Bureau of Military History – Witness Statements Online (PDF files)
Template:Easter Rising Template:History of Dublin Template:Ireland topics Template:IRB Template:Uprisings against Entente Powers during WWI