Economy of Japan

Template:Short description Template:Use British English Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox economy The economy of Japan is a highly developed mixed economy, often referred to as an East Asian model.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to the IMF forecast for 2025, it will be the fifth-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP as well as by purchasing power parity (PPP) by the end of the year.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It constituted 3.7% of the world's economy on a nominal basis in 2024. According to the same forecast, the country's per capita GDP (PPP) will be $54,678 (2025).<ref name="IMFWEOJP">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Due to a volatile currency exchange rate, Japan's nominal GDP as measured in American dollars fluctuates sharply.

A founding member of the G7 and an early member of the OECD, Japan was the first country in Asia to achieve developed country status. In 2018, Japan was the fourth-largest in the world both as an importer and as an exporter.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The country also has the world's fourth-largest consumer market.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan used to run a considerable trade surplus, but the decline of the manufacturing sector since the 1980s and increased fossil fuel imports after the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011 have changed this trend in recent years.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Being the world's largest creditor nation,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="creditor">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="creditor 22nd year">Template:Cite news</ref> Japan has a considerable net international investment surplus. The country has the world's second-largest foreign-exchange reserves, worth $1.4 trillion.<ref name="Japan_reserves">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan has the third-largest financial assets in the world, valued at $12 trillion, or 8.6% of the global GDP total as of 2020.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="fin">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan has a highly efficient and strong social security system, which comprises roughly 23.5% of GDP.<ref name="Kenworthy">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Bradley et al.">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Japan_welfare">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Tokyo Stock Exchange is the world's third-largest stock exchange by market capitalisation as of 2024.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Japan has a highly service-dominated economy, which contributes approximately 70% of GDP, with most of the remainder coming from the industrial sector.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The country's automobile industry, which is the second largest in the world, dominates the industrial sector, with Toyota being the world’s largest manufacturer of cars.<ref name="2013 PRODUCTION STATISTICS – FIRST 6 MONTHS">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan is often ranked among the world’s most innovative countries, leading several measures of global patent filings. However, its manufacturing industry has lost its world dominance since the 1990s. In 2022, Japan spent around 3.7% of GDP on research and development. As of 2024, 40 of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Japan.<ref name="Global 500 2015">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Long having been an agricultural country, it has been estimated that Japan’s economy was among the top ten in the world by size before the industrial revolution started.<ref>Maddison 2007, p. 379, table A.4.</ref> Industrialisation in Japan began in the second half of the 19th century with the Meiji Restoration, initially focusing on the textile industry and later on heavy industries. The country rapidly built its colonial empire and the third most powerful navy in the world. After the defeat in the Second World War, Japan’s economy recovered and developed further rapidly, primarily propelled by its lucrative manufacturing exporting industries.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It became the second largest economy in the world in 1968 and remained so until 2010,<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and on a nominal per capita basis, the most high-income among the G7 countries in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 1995, Japan’s share of the world’s nominal GDP was 17.8%, reaching approximately 71% of that of the United States.<ref name=":0" />

Driven by speculative investments and excessive lending, the Japanese asset price bubble of the early 1990s burst, triggering a prolonged period of economic stagnation marked by deflation and persistently low or negative growth, now known as the Lost Decades. From 1995 to 2023, the country’s GDP fell from $5.5 trillion to $4.2 trillion in nominal terms.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> At the turn of the 21st century, the Bank of Japan set out to encourage growth through a policy of quantitative easing, with the central bank purchasing government bonds at an unprecedented scale to address the persisting deflationary pressure.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="japandebt">Template:Cite news</ref> In 2016, the Bank of Japan introduced a negative interest policy to stimulate economic growth and combat persistent deflationary pressure. A combination of domestic policies and global economic conditions helped the country achieve its 2% inflation target, leading to the conclusion of the policy in 2024.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

As of 2021, Japan has significantly higher public debt than other developed nations, at approximately 260% of GDP.<ref name="Nikkeimoneypushers">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="debttogdp">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 45% of this debt is held by the Bank of Japan, and most of the remainder is also held domestically.<ref name="Nikkeimoneypushers" /> The Japanese economy faces considerable challenges posed by an ageing and declining population, which peaked at 128.5 million people in 2010 and has fallen to 122.6 million people in 2024.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2022, the country's working age population consisted of approximately 59.4% of the total population, which was the lowest rate among all the OECD countries.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to 2023 government projections, the country's population will fall to 87 million by 2070, with only 45 million of working age.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

History

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The economic history of Japan is one of the most studied. Major milestones in modern Japan's economic progress include:

• The foundation of the Tokugawa shogunate based in Edo (in 1603), initiating a period of internal economic development.
• The Meiji Restoration (in 1868) leading to Japan becoming the first non-European modern world power.
• Japan's defeat in World War II (in 1945), after which the island nation rose to become the world's second-largest economy.
• The Lost Decades (the 1990s, 2000s and arguably 2010s), during which the country struggled to get out of deflation and extremely low or negative growth.

Edo period (1603–1868)

File:Hiroshige, Sugura street.jpg

An 1856 ukiyo-e depicting Echigoya, the current Mitsukoshi

The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period, marked by intense interaction with European powers. Japan built its first Western-style warships, such as the San Juan Bautista, and commissioned around 350 Red Seal Ships for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, were active throughout Asia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

To eradicate Christian influence, Japan entered a period of isolation called sakoku in the 1630s, which led to economic stability and mild progress. In the 1650s, Japanese export porcelain production increased significantly due to a civil war in China, mainly in Kyushu.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead link</ref> This trade dwindled by the 1740s under renewed Chinese competition but resumed after Japan’s mid-19th century opening.

Economic development during the Edo period included urbanisation, increased commodity shipping, and expanded domestic and foreign commerce. The construction trades, banking facilities, and merchant associations flourished. Daimyō-led authorities (han) oversaw rising agricultural production and rural handicrafts. By the mid-18th century, Edo had a population of over 1 million, while Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants, becoming centres for trade and handicraft production.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Rice, the economy’s base, was taxed at about 40% of the harvest and sold at the fudasashi market in Edo. Daimyō used forward contracts similar to modern futures trading to sell rice before harvest.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

During the sakoku period, Japan studied Western sciences and techniques (rangaku) through Dutch traders in Dejima, including geography, medicine, natural sciences, astronomy, and mechanical sciences. Japan reopened its economy to the West after being pressured by the United States twice in 1853 and 1854.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Pre-war period (1868–1945)

Since the mid-19th century, after the Meiji Restoration, the country was opened up to Western commerce and influence and went through a period of economic development that extended through to the First World War.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Economic developments of the prewar period began with the "Rich State and Strong Army Policy" by the Meiji government. During the Meiji period (1868–1912), leaders inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to Europe and the United States, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Oyatoi gaikokujin). The government also built an extensive railway network, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

To promote industrialisation, the government decided that, while it should help private business to allocate resources and to plan, the private sector was best equipped to stimulate economic growth. The greatest role of government was to help provide good economic conditions for business. In short, government was to be the guide and business the producer. In the early Meiji period, the government built factories and shipyards that were sold to entrepreneurs at a fraction of their value. Many of these businesses grew rapidly into the larger conglomerates such as Mitsubishi. Government emerged as chief promoter of private enterprise, enacting a series of pro-business policies.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Post-war period (1945–1989)

File:2005Japanese exports.PNG

Japanese exports partners in 2005

Japan underwent significant economic transformation and rapid recovery and growth, emerging from the devastation of the Second World War to become a global economic powerhouse. The immediate post-war period saw Japan slowly recovering as a democratic nation under the Allied Occupation. The Korean War (1950–1953), which happened in its now divided former colony, boosted the economy, as Japan served as a major supply hub for U.S. forces. By the 1950s and 1960s, Japan’s economy had entered a period of high growth, often referred to as the 'Japanese Economic Miracle'. Key factors in this growth included government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, advanced technology, and a focus on export-oriented manufacturing. Japan’s economy diversified from textiles to steel, shipbuilding, and eventually electronics and automobiles, with companies such as Toyota, Sony, Hitachi and Honda becoming household names worldwide.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

In 1968, Japan became the world’s third-largest economy then the second largest in the 1988, surpassing the economy of the Soviet Union. A position it held until it was surpassed by China in 2010. The government played a crucial role through policies that promoted industrial expansion and technological advancement. Japan’s emphasis on quality control and continuous improvement ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) further boosted its international competitiveness.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> By the 1980s, Japan was leading in a wide range of industries, including automotive and consumer electronics, and was known for its formidable trade surplus and wealth.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, the late 1980s also saw the infamous Plaza Accord and the formation of an asset price bubble, with inflated real estate and stock market prices, setting the stage for the economic stagnation of the 'Lost Decades' that followed.

Heisei period (1989–2019)

File:G7 Countries GDP Per Capita (1990-2029).png

Japan's nominal GDP per capita stagnated around $40,000 for the entire period.

File:Japan bonds.webp

CitationClass=web }}</ref> Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line

File:Japan money supply and inflation.webp

Japan money supply and inflation (year over year) Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line

Growth slowed markedly in the late 1990s also termed the Lost Decade after the collapse of Japanese asset price bubble. As a consequence Japan ran massive budget deficits (added trillions in Yen to Japanese financial system) to finance large public works programs.

By 1998, Japan's public works projects still could not stimulate demand enough to end the economy's stagnation. In desperation, the Japanese government undertook "structural reform" policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Unfortunately, these policies led Japan into deflation on numerous occasions between 1999 and 2004. The Bank of Japan used quantitative easing to expand the country's money supply in order to raise expectations of inflation and spur economic growth. Initially, the policy failed to induce any growth, but it eventually began to affect inflationary expectations. By late 2005, the economy finally began what seems to be a sustained recovery. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualised fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.<ref>Masake, Hisane. A farewell to zero. Asia Times Online (2 March 2006). Retrieved on 28 December 2006.</ref> Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor of growth.

File:Japanese Bond Market.webp

Japanese bond market
Negative interest rates started in 2014. Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line

Despite having interest rates down near zero for a long period of time, the quantitative easing strategy did not succeed in stopping price deflation.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> This led some economists, such as Paul Krugman, and some Japanese politicians, to advocate the generation of higher inflation expectations.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In July 2006, the zero-rate policy was ended. In 2008, the Japanese Central Bank still had the lowest interest rates in the developed world, but deflation had still not been eliminated<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the Nikkei 225 has fallen over approximately 50% (between June 2007 and December 2008). However, on 5 April 2013, the Bank of Japan announced that it would be purchasing 60–70 trillion yen in bonds and securities in an attempt to eliminate deflation by doubling the money supply in Japan over the course of two years. Markets around the world have responded positively to the government's current proactive policies, with the Nikkei 225 adding more than 42% since November 2012.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Economist has suggested that improvements to bankruptcy law, land transfer law, and tax laws will aid Japan's economy. In recent years, Japan has been the top export market for almost 15 trading nations worldwide.

In December 2018, a free trade agreement between Japan and the European Union was cleared to commence in February 2019. It creates the world's largest free trade zone valued at 1/3rd of global gross domestic product. This reduces tariffs on Japanese cars by 10%, duties by 30% on cheese and 10% on wines and opens service markets.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

2020–21 recession

In early January 2020, Japanese economy began to suffer from the COVID-19 pandemic. In early April, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced a state of emergency.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="416emergency">Template:Cite news</ref> Less than a quarter of Japanese people expected living conditions to improve in the coming decades.<ref>The Economist, 28 March 2020, page 4.</ref> In October 2020 during the pandemic, Japan and the United Kingdom formally signed the first free-trade agreement post-Brexit, which will boost trade by approximately £15.2 billion. It enables tariff-free trade on 99% of exports to Japan.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On 15 February 2021, the Nikkei average breached the 30k benchmark, the highest since November 1991.<ref name="30kbenchmark" /> It was due to strong corporate earnings, GDP data and optimism over the COVID-19 vaccination program in the country.<ref name="30kbenchmark">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Post-recession (2021–present)

At the end of March 2022, the Ministry of Finance announced that the national debt reached precisely 1.017 million billion yen.<ref name="medium">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The total public debt of the country, which includes debts contracted by local governments, represents 1.210 million billion yen (9,200 billion dollars) which is nearly 250% of Japan's GDP.<ref name="medium" /> Economist Kohei Iwahara said such an exceptional debt to GDP level is only possible because Japanese hold most of the debt: "“Japanese households hold most of their savings in bank accounts (48%) and these sums are used by commercial banks to buy Japanese government bonds. Thus, 85.7% of these bonds are held by Japanese investors.”<ref name="medium" />

The Bank of Japan's main policy aim since the Lost Decades started had been to end deflation and eventually achieve 2% inflation.<ref name="japandebt" /> The increased international economic tension brought about by events such as the Russian Invasion of Ukraine in 2022 finally helped the country achieve the much-anticipated inflation target of 2%, and the negative interest policy since 2016 was ended in March 2024.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> However, while other major economies focus on suppressing inflation by raising interest rates, Japan aims to firmly establish inflation by maintaining low rates. As a side effect, the Japanese yen has become extremely weak, hitting a 37.5-year low of 161 yen/USD in July 2024.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Furthermore, the real effective exchange rate in May 2024, when the 2020 average is set at 100, is 68.65, the lowest level since the start of the Bank of Japan statistics in January 1970, due to a combination of low inflation in Japan and a relatively low trade share.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This devaluation of the currency caused Japan to lose its status as the world’s third largest economy to Germany in nominal terms, which was approximately half the size of the country's economy a decade earlier.<ref name="Japan slips">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="McCurry">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Factors such as an apparent end to the 30-year struggle against deflation, improvements in corporate governance, and high corporate profits boosted the stock market. Consequently, both the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices surpassed the record highs they reached more than 30 years ago in 2024. The market capitalisation of the Tokyo Stock Exchange’s prime section exceeded a quadrillion yen for the first time in July 2024.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Macro-economic trend

GDP composition

Industries by GDP value-added 2012.<ref name="stat">Statistics Division of Gifu Prefecture Template:Webarchive. Template:In lang Gifu Prefecture. Accessed 2 November 2007.</ref> Values are converted using the exchange rate on 13 April 2013.<ref name="finance.yahoo">Template:Cite news</ref>

Industry	GDP value-added billions 2018	% of total GDP
Other service activities	1,238	23.5%
Manufacturing	947	18.0%
Real estate	697	13.2%
Wholesale and retail trade	660	12.5%
Transport and communication	358	6.8%
Public administration	329	6.2%
Construction	327	6.2%
Finance and insurance	306	5.8%
Electricity, gas and water supply	179	3.4%
Government service activities	41	0.7%
Mining	3	0.1%
Total	5,268	100%

Development of main indicators

File:GDP growth rate in Japan.svg

Real GDP growth rate

The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2023 (with IMF staff estimates in 2024–2029). Inflation under 5% is in green.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Template:Static row numbersTemplate:Sticky header

Year	GDP (in bn. US$PPP)	GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)	GDP (in bn. US$nominal)	GDP per capita (in US$ nominal)	GDP growth (real)	Inflation rate (in Per cent)	Unemployment (in Per cent)	Government debt (in % of GDP)
1980	1,068.1	9,147.0	1,127.9	9,659.0	Template:Increase3.2%	Template:IncreaseNegative7.8%	2.0%	47.8%
1981	Template:Increase1,218.4	Template:Increase10,358.1	Template:Increase1,243.8	Template:Increase10,574.4	Template:Increase4.2%	Template:Increase4.9%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.2%	Template:IncreaseNegative52.9%
1982	Template:Increase1,336.5	Template:Increase11,283.0	Template:Decrease1,157.6	Template:Decrease9,772.8	Template:Increase3.3%	Template:Increase2.8%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative57.8%
1983	Template:Increase1,437.8	Template:Increase12,054.5	Template:Increase1,268.6	Template:Increase10,636.5	Template:Increase3.5%	Template:Increase1.9%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative63.6%
1984	Template:Increase1,556.7	Template:Increase12,967.1	Template:Increase1,345.2	Template:Increase11,205.4	Template:Increase4.5%	Template:Increase2.3%	Template:Steady2.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative65.6%
1985	Template:Increase1,690.0	Template:Increase13,989.8	Template:Increase1,427.4	Template:Increase11,815.8	Template:Increase5.2%	Template:Increase2.0%	Template:DecreasePositive2.6%	Template:IncreaseNegative68.3%
1986	Template:Increase1,781.4	Template:Increase14,667.9	Template:Increase2,121.3	Template:Increase17,466.7	Template:Increase3.3%	Template:Increase0.6%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.8%	Template:IncreaseNegative74.0%
1987	Template:Increase1,911.8	Template:Increase15,666.3	Template:Increase2,584.3	Template:Increase21,177.8	Template:Increase4.7%	Template:Increase0.1%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.9%	Template:IncreaseNegative75.7%
1988	Template:Increase2,113.5	Template:Increase17,246.0	Template:Increase3,134.2	Template:Increase25,575.1	Template:Increase6.8%	Template:Increase0.7%	Template:DecreasePositive2.5%	Template:DecreasePositive71.8%
1989	Template:Increase2,303.0	Template:Increase18,719.6	Template:Decrease3,117.1	Template:Decrease25,336.2	Template:Increase4.9%	Template:Increase2.3%	Template:DecreasePositive2.3%	Template:DecreasePositive65.5%
1990	Template:Increase2,506.1	Template:Increase20,302.7	Template:Increase3,196.6	Template:Increase25,896.0	Template:Increase4.9%	Template:Increase3.1%	Template:DecreasePositive2.1%	Template:DecreasePositive63.0%
1991	Template:Increase2,679.4	Template:Increase21,620.8	Template:Increase3,657.3	Template:Increase29,511.8	Template:Increase3.4%	Template:Increase3.3%	Template:Steady2.1%	Template:DecreasePositive62.2%
1992	Template:Increase2,763.7	Template:Increase22,222.4	Template:Increase3,988.3	Template:Increase32,069.1	Template:Increase0.8%	Template:Increase1.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.2%	Template:IncreaseNegative66.6%
1993	Template:Increase2,814.6	Template:Increase22,558.2	Template:Increase4,544.8	Template:Increase36,425.2	Template:Decrease-0.5%	Template:Increase1.3%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.5%	Template:IncreaseNegative72.7%
1994	Template:Increase2,899.9	Template:Increase23,177.4	Template:Increase4,998.8	Template:Increase39,953.2	Template:Increase0.9%	Template:Increase0.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.9%	Template:IncreaseNegative84.4%
1995	Template:Increase3,038.6	Template:Increase24,224.0	Template:Increase5,545.6	Template:Increase44,210.2	Template:Increase2.6%	Template:Increase-0.1%	Template:IncreaseNegative3.2%	Template:IncreaseNegative92.5%
1996	Template:Increase3,191.2	Template:Increase25,385.0	Template:Decrease4,923.4	Template:Decrease39,164.3	Template:Increase3.1%	Template:Increase0.1%	Template:IncreaseNegative3.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative98.1%
1997	Template:Increase3,278.1	Template:Increase26,014.1	Template:Decrease4,492.4	Template:Decrease35,651.3	Template:Increase1.0%	Template:Increase1.7%	Template:Steady3.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative105.0%
1998	Template:Decrease3,272.8	Template:Decrease25,903.3	Template:Decrease4,098.4	Template:Decrease32,436.9	Template:Decrease-1.3%	Template:Increase0.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative4.1%	Template:IncreaseNegative116.0%
1999	Template:Increase3,307.9	Template:Increase26,131.3	Template:Increase4,636.0	Template:Increase36,622.9	Template:Decrease-0.3%	Template:Increase-0.3%	Template:IncreaseNegative4.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative129.5%
2000	Template:Increase3,476.3	Template:Increase27,409.2	Template:Increase4,968.4	Template:Increase39,173.0	Template:Increase2.8%	Template:Increase-0.7%	Template:Steady4.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative135.6%
2001	Template:Increase3,568.4	Template:Increase28,068.3	Template:Decrease4,374.7	Template:Decrease34,410.7	Template:Increase0.4%	Template:Increase-0.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative5.0%	Template:IncreaseNegative145.1%
2002	Template:Increase3,625.5	Template:Increase28,457.7	Template:Decrease4,182.8	Template:Decrease32,832.3	Template:Increase0.0%	Template:Increase-0.9%	Template:IncreaseNegative5.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative154.1%
2003	Template:Increase3,753.8	Template:Increase29,410.9	Template:Increase4,519.6	Template:Increase35,410.2	Template:Increase1.5%	Template:Increase-0.3%	Template:DecreasePositive5.2%	Template:IncreaseNegative160.0%
2004	Template:Increase3,938.9	Template:Increase30,836.4	Template:Increase4,893.1	Template:Increase38,307.1	Template:Increase2.2%	Template:Increase0.0%	Template:DecreasePositive4.7%	Template:IncreaseNegative169.5%
2005	Template:Increase4,135.7	Template:Increase32,372.7	Template:Decrease4,831.5	Template:Decrease37,819.1	Template:Increase1.8%	Template:Increase-0.3%	Template:DecreasePositive4.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative174.3%
2006	Template:Increase4,321.8	Template:Increase33,831.1	Template:Decrease4,601.7	Template:Decrease36,021.9	Template:Increase1.4%	Template:Increase0.3%	Template:DecreasePositive4.1%	Template:DecreasePositive174.0%
2007	Template:Increase4,504.5	Template:Increase35,257.9	Template:Decrease4,579.7	Template:Decrease35,847.2	Template:Increase1.5%	Template:Increase0.0%	Template:DecreasePositive3.8%	Template:DecreasePositive172.8%
2008	Template:Increase4,534.6	Template:Increase35,512.2	Template:Increase5,106.7	Template:Increase39,992.1	Template:Decrease-1.2%	Template:Increase1.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative4.0%	Template:IncreaseNegative180.7%
2009	Template:Decrease4,303.9	Template:Decrease33,742.5	Template:Increase5,289.5	Template:Increase41,469.8	Template:Decrease-5.7%	Template:Increase-1.3%	Template:IncreaseNegative5.1%	Template:IncreaseNegative198.7%
2010	Template:Increase4,534.1	Template:Increase35,535.2	Template:Increase5,759.1	Template:Increase45,135.8	Template:Increase4.1%	Template:Increase-0.7%	Template:Steady5.1%	Template:IncreaseNegative205.7%
2011	Template:Increase4,629.4	Template:Increase36,215.1	Template:Increase6,233.1	Template:Increase48,760.9	Template:Increase0.0%	Template:Increase-0.3%	Template:DecreasePositive4.6%	Template:IncreaseNegative219.1%
2012	Template:Increase4,799.6	Template:Increase37,628.8	Template:Increase6,272.4	Template:Increase49,175.1	Template:Increase1.4%	Template:Increase0.0%	Template:DecreasePositive4.3%	Template:IncreaseNegative226.1%
2013	Template:Increase5,021.6	Template:Increase39,436.8	Template:Decrease5,212.3	Template:Decrease40,934.8	Template:Increase2.0%	Template:Increase0.3%	Template:DecreasePositive4.0%	Template:IncreaseNegative229.6%
2014	Template:Increase5,034.5	Template:Increase39,604.1	Template:Decrease4,897.0	Template:Decrease38,522.8	Template:Increase0.3%	Template:Increase2.8%	Template:DecreasePositive3.6%	Template:IncreaseNegative233.5%
2015	Template:Increase5,200.9	Template:Increase40,959.3	Template:Decrease4,444.9	Template:Decrease35,005.7	Template:Increase1.6%	Template:Increase0.8%	Template:DecreasePositive3.4%	Template:DecreasePositive228.3%
2016	Template:Decrease5,159.7	Template:Decrease40,640.5	Template:Increase5,003.7	Template:Increase39,411.4	Template:Increase0.8%	Template:Increase-0.1%	Template:DecreasePositive3.1%	Template:IncreaseNegative232.4%
2017	Template:Increase5,248.4	Template:Increase41,409.0	Template:Decrease4,930.8	Template:Decrease38,903.3	Template:Increase1.7%	Template:Increase0.5%	Template:DecreasePositive2.8%	Template:DecreasePositive231.3%
2018	Template:Increase5,403.2	Template:Increase42,714.6	Template:Increase5,040.9	Template:Increase39,850.3	Template:Increase0.6%	Template:Increase1.0%	Template:DecreasePositive2.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative232.4%
2019	Template:Increase5,471.8	Template:Increase43,351.0	Template:Increase5,118.0	Template:Increase40,548.0	Template:Decrease-0.4%	Template:Increase0.5%	Template:Steady2.4%	Template:IncreaseNegative236.4%
2020	Template:Decrease5,314.1	Template:Decrease42,226.3	Template:Decrease5,055.6	Template:Decrease40,171.9	Template:Decrease-4.1%	Template:Increase0.0%	Template:IncreaseNegative2.8%	Template:IncreaseNegative258.3%
2021	Template:Increase5,700.0	Template:Increase45,416.0	Template:Decrease5,034.6	Template:Decrease40,114.3	Template:Increase2.6%	Template:Increase-0.2%	Template:Steady2.8%	Template:DecreasePositive253.9%
2022	Template:Increase6,159.8	Template:Increase49,210.6	Template:Decrease4,256.4	Template:Decrease34,004.7	Template:Increase1.0%	Template:Increase2.5%	Template:DecreasePositive2.6%	Template:IncreaseNegative257.2%
2023	Template:Increase6,507.1	Template:Increase52,214.6	Template:Decrease4,212.9	Template:Decrease33,805.9	Template:Increase1.9%	Template:Increase3.3%	Template:Steady2.6%	Template:DecreasePositive252.4%
2024	Template:Increase6,721.0	Template:Increase54,183.9	Template:Decrease4,110.5	Template:Decrease33,138.2	Template:Increase0.9%	Template:Increase2.2%	Template:DecreasePositive2.5%	Template:IncreaseNegative254.6%
2025	Template:Increase6,908.4	Template:Increase55,970.4	Template:Increase4,310.4	Template:Increase34,921.6	Template:Increase1.0%	Template:Increase2.1%	Template:Steady2.5%	Template:DecreasePositive252.6%
2026	Template:Increase7,094.9	Template:Increase57,778.4	Template:Increase4,499.5	Template:Increase36,642.7	Template:Increase0.8%	Template:Increase2.0%	Template:Steady2.5%	Template:DecreasePositive251.3%
2027	Template:Increase7,271.8	Template:Increase59,538.8	Template:Increase4,649.1	Template:Increase38,064.8	Template:Increase0.6%	Template:Increase2.0%	Template:Steady2.5%	Template:DecreasePositive251.0%
2028	Template:Increase7,451.9	Template:Increase61,354.8	Template:Increase4,836.3	Template:Increase39,819.6	Template:Increase0.6%	Template:Increase2.0%	Template:Steady2.5%	Template:Steady251.0%
2029	Template:Increase7,628.2	Template:Increase63,170.9	Template:Increase4,944.7	Template:Increase40,948.6	Template:Increase0.4%	Template:Increase2.0%	Template:Steady2.5%	Template:IncreaseNegative251.7%

Sectors of the economy

Agriculture

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:TawaramotoRiceField.png

Rice is a very important crop in Japan as shown here in a rice paddy in Tawaramoto, Nara.

The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.1% (2017) of the total country's GDP.<ref name="Japan Country Report" /> Only 12% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation.<ref name="As Farmers Age, Japan Rethinks Relationship with Food, Fields">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Trip Report - Japan Agricultural Situation">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Due to this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas.<ref name="Urbanites Help Sustain Japan's Historic Rice Paddy Terraces">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than 56,000 km² (14 million acres) cultivated.

Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidised and protected, with government regulations that favour small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America.<ref name="As Farmers Age, Japan Rethinks Relationship with Food, Fields" /> There has been a growing concern about farming as the current farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors.<ref name="How will Japan's farms survive?">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Rice accounts for almost all of Japan's cereal production.<ref name="Japan - Agriculture">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Japan is the second-largest agricultural product importer in the world.<ref name="Japan - Agriculture" /> Rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 777.7%.<ref name="Trip Report - Japan Agricultural Situation" /><ref name="With fewer, bigger plots and fewer part-time farmers, agriculture could compete">Template:Cite news</ref>

Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods) and wheat, the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops and relies on imports for half of its supply of meat.<ref name="Japan Immigration Work Permits and Visas">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Japan needs imports to keep itself fed">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan imports large quantities of wheat and soybeans.<ref name="Japan - Agriculture" /> Japan is the 5th largest market for the European Union's agricultural exports.<ref name="Agricultural trade in 2012: EU">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Update inline Over 90% of mandarin oranges in Japan are grown in Japan.<ref name="Japan needs imports to keep itself fed" /> Apples are also grown due to restrictions on apple imports.<ref name="Japan may warm to U.S. apples">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Fishery

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Global fish catch 2004 & 2005.jpg

Global fish catch in Japan

Japan ranked fourth in the world in 1996 in tonnage of fish caught.<ref name="World review of fisheries and aquaculture">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan captured 4,074,580 metric tons of fish in 2005, down from 4,987,703 tons in 2000, 9,558,615 tons in 1990, 9,864,422 tons in 1980, 8,520,397 tons in 1970, 5,583,796 tons in 1960 and 2,881,855 tons in 1950.<ref name="Fish capture by country">Template:Cite news</ref> In 2003, the total aquaculture production was predicted at 1,301,437 tonnes.<ref name="Japan National Aquaculture Sector Overview">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2010, Japan's total fisheries production was 4,762,469 fish.<ref name="World fisheries production, by capture and aquaculture, by country (2010)">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Offshore fisheries accounted for an average of 50% of the nation's total fish catches in the late 1980s although they experienced repeated ups and downs during that period.

Coastal fishing by small boats, set nets, or breeding techniques accounts for about one third of the industry's total production, while offshore fishing by medium-sized boats makes up for more than half the total production. Deep-sea fishing from larger vessels makes up the rest. Among the many species of seafood caught are sardines, skipjack tuna, crab, shrimp, salmon, pollock, squid, clams, mackerel, sea bream, sauries, tuna and Japanese amberjack. Freshwater fishing, including salmon, trout and eel hatcheries and fish farms,<ref name="FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE IN JAPAN">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> takes up about 30% of Japan's fishing industry. Among the nearly 300 fish species in the rivers of Japan are native varieties of catfish, chub, herring and goby, as well as such freshwater crustaceans as crabs and crayfish.<ref name="List of Freshwater Fishes for Japan">Template:Cite news</ref> Marine and freshwater aquaculture is conducted in all 47 prefectures in Japan.<ref name="Japan National Aquaculture Sector Overview" />

Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna.<ref name="UN tribunal halts Japanese tuna over-fishing">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling.<ref name="Japanese whaling 'science' rapped">Template:Cite news</ref>

Industry

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Japanese manufacturing and industry is very diversified, with a variety of advanced industries that are highly successful. Industry accounts for 30.1% (2017) of the nation's GDP.<ref name="Japan Country Report" /> The country's manufacturing output is the third highest in the world.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Industry is concentrated in several regions, with the Kantō region surrounding Tokyo, (the Keihin industrial region) as well as the Kansai region surrounding Osaka (the Hanshin industrial region) and the Tōkai region surrounding Nagoya (the Chūkyō–Tōkai industrial region) the main industrial centers.<ref name="NRI Tokai Industry">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Case study of regional university-industry partnership in practice">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Evaluating the Impacts of Regional Cluster Policies">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Location and Role of Foreign Firms in Regional Innovation Systems in Japan">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Profile of Osaka/Kansai">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Japan in the 21st Century">Template:Cite book</ref> Other industrial centers include the southwestern part of Honshū and northern Shikoku around the Seto Inland Sea (the Setouchi industrial region); and the northern part of Kyūshū (Kitakyūshū). In addition, a long narrow belt of industrial centers called the Taiheiyō Belt is found between Tokyo and Fukuoka, established by particular industries, that have developed as mill towns.

Japan enjoys high technological development in many fields, including consumer electronics, automobile manufacturing, semiconductor manufacturing, optical fibers, optoelectronics, optical media, facsimile and copy machines, and fermentation processes in food and biochemistry. However, many Japanese companies are facing emerging rivals from the United States, South Korea, and Taiwan.<ref name="The era of Japanese consumer electronics giants is dead">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Automobile manufacturing

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:2017-03-07 Geneva Motor Show 1217.JPG

Lexus LS. The rapid growth and success of Toyota's Lexus and other Japanese automakers reflects Japan's strength and global dominance in the automobile industry.

Japan is the third biggest producer of automobiles in the world.<ref name="2013 PRODUCTION STATISTICS – FIRST 6 MONTHS" /> Toyota is currently the world's largest car maker, and the Japanese car makers Nissan, Honda, Suzuki, and Mazda also count for some of the largest car makers in the world.<ref name="Toyota Again World's Largest Auto Maker">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="WORLD MOTOR VEHICLE PRODUCTION OICA correspondents survey">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> By number, Japan is the world's largest exporter of cars as of 2021.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Mining and petroleum exploration

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Japan's mining production has been minimal, and Japan has very little mining deposits.<ref name="Japan Mining">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Mining Overview">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, massive deposits of rare earths have been found off the coast of Japan.<ref name="Japan's massive rare earth discovery threatens China's supremacy">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In the 2011 fiscal year, the domestic yield of crude oil was 820 thousand kiloliters, which was 0.4% of Japan's total crude processing volume.<ref name="Petroleum Industry in Japan 2013">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 2019, Japan was the 2nd largest world producer of iodine,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> 4th largest worldwide producer of bismuth,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the world's 9th largest producer of sulfur<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the 10th largest producer of gypsum.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Services

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Japan Airlines, Boeing 787-9 JA861J NRT (19455285040).jpg

Japan Airlines, though faced with massive debts as of 2010, is considered one of the largest airlines in the world.

Japan's service sector accounts for 68.7% (2017) of its total economic output.<ref name="Japan Country Report">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries such as Mitsubishi UFJ, Mizuho, NTT, TEPCO, Nomura, Mitsubishi Estate, Aeon, Mitsui Sumitomo, Softbank, JR East, Seven & i Holdings, KDDI and Japan Airlines counting as some of the largest companies in the world.<ref name="Fortune Global 500">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> two of the five most circulated newspapers in the world are Japanese newspapers.<ref name="National Newspapers Total Circulation 2011">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Koizumi government set Japan Post, one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services for privatisation by 2015.<ref name="Japan govt aims to list Japan Post in three years">Template:Cite news</ref> The six major keiretsus are the Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan is home to 251 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 12.55% (as of 2013).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Tourism

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Himeji castle in may 2015.jpg

Himeji Castle, in Himeji, Hyōgo Prefecture, is one of the most visited sights in Japan.

In 2012, Japan was the fifth most visited country in Asia and the Pacific, with over 8.3 million tourists.<ref name="Tourism Highlights 2013 Edition">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2013, due to the weaker yen and easier visa requirements for southwest Asian countries, Japan received a record 11.25 million visitors, which was higher than the government's projected goal of 10 million visitors.<ref name="Japan marks new high in tourism">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Attracting more tourists to Japan">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Record 2013 tourism in Japan despite islands spat, nuclear fallout">Template:Cite news</ref> The government hopes to attract 40 million visitors a year by the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.<ref name="Attracting more tourists to Japan" /> Some of the most popular visited places include the Shinjuku, Ginza, Shibuya and Asakusa areas in Tokyo, and the cities of Osaka, Kobe and Kyoto, as well as Himeji Castle.<ref name="Japan's 10 Most Popular Tourist Attractions">Template:Cite news</ref> Hokkaido is also a popular winter destination for visitors with several ski resorts and luxury hotels being built there.<ref name="Attracting more tourists to Japan" /><ref name="Boom time for Hokkaido ski resort area">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Japan's economy is less dependent on international tourism than those of other G7 countries and OECD countries in general; from 1995 to 2014, it was by far the least visited country in the G7 despite being the second largest country in the group,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and as of 2013 was one of the least visited countries in the OECD on a per capita basis.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2013, international tourist receipts was 0.3% of Japan's GDP, while the corresponding figure was 1.3% for the United States and 2.3% for France.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Infrastructure

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Series-N700A-F20.jpg

Shinkansen N700 Series

In 2018, Japan ranked 5th overall in the World Bank's Logistics Performance Index,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and 2nd in the infrastructure category.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 2005, one half of Japan's energy was produced from petroleum, a fifth from coal, and 14% from natural gas.<ref>Chapter 7 Energy Template:Webarchive, Statistical Handbook of Japan 2007</ref> Nuclear power in Japan made a quarter of electricity production but due to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster there has been a large desire to end Japan's nuclear power program.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In September 2013, Japan closed its last 50 nuclear power plants nationwide, causing the nation to be nuclear free.<ref name="Japan goes nuclear-free indefinitely">Template:Cite news</ref> The country has since then opted to restart a few of its nuclear reactors.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Japan's spendings on roads has been considered large.<ref name="Japan's Road to Deep Deficit Is Paved With Public Works">Template:Cite news</ref> The 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are one of the major means of transportation.<ref>Chapter 9 Transport Template:Webarchive, Statistical Handbook of Japan</ref> Japan has left-hand traffic.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A single network of speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and are operated by toll-collecting enterprises.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> New and used cars are inexpensive, and the Japanese government has encouraged people to buy hybrid vehicles.<ref name="Prius No. 1 in Japan sales as green interest grows">Template:Cite news</ref> Car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy-efficiency.<ref name="Prius No. 1 in Japan sales as green interest grows" />

Rail transport is a major means of transport in Japan. Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; for instance, 6 passenger JR enterprises, Kintetsu Railway, Seibu Railway, and Keio Corporation.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Often, strategies of these enterprises contain real estate or department stores next to stations, and many major stations have major department stores near them.<ref name="Osaka dept stores locked in scrap for survival">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Japanese cities of Fukuoka, Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka, Sapporo, Sendai, Tokyo and Yokohama all have subway systems. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> All trains are known for punctuality, and a delay of 90 seconds can be considered late for some train services.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

There are 98 passenger and 175 total airports in Japan, and flying is a popular way to travel.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The largest domestic airport, Tokyo International Airport, is Asia's second busiest airport.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area).<ref name="Narita airport prepares for battle with Asian hubs">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The largest ports in Japan include Nagoya Port, the Port of Yokohama, the Port of Tokyo and the Port of Kobe.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

About 84% of Japan's energy is imported from other countries.<ref name="Nuclear Power in Japan">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Japan's Energy Supply Situation and Basic Policy">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan is the world's largest liquefied natural gas importer, second largest coal importer, and third largest net oil importer.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources.<ref name="Fukushima Watch: Some Power Companies in Black without Nuclear Restarts">Template:Cite news</ref> Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from 77.4% in 1973 to about 43.7% in 2010 and increased dependence on natural gas and nuclear power.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In September 2019, Japan will invest 10 billion on liquefied natural gas projects worldwide, in a strategy to boost the global LNG market and reinforce the security of energy supply.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Other important energy source includes coal, and hydroelectricity is Japan's biggest renewable energy source.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Japan's solar market is also currently booming.<ref name="Kyocera Boosts Solar Sales Goal on Higher Demand in Japan">Template:Cite news</ref> Kerosene is also used extensively for home heating in portable heaters, especially farther north.<ref name="Japan kerosene heater sales surge on power worries">Template:Cite news</ref> Many taxi companies run their fleets on liquefied natural gas.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A recent success towards greater fuel economy was the introduction of mass-produced hybrid vehicles.<ref name="Prius No. 1 in Japan sales as green interest grows" /> Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, who was working on Japan's economic revival, signed a treaty with Saudi Arabia and UAE about the rising prices of oil, ensuring Japan's stable deliveries from that region.<ref name="Japan, Saudi Arabia agree on security, energy cooperation">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Abe clinches nuclear technology deal with Abu Dhabi">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Finance

File:The Tokyo Stock Exchange - main room 3.jpg

The main trading room of the Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in the world

The Tokyo Stock Exchange is the third largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalisation, as well as the 2nd largest stock market in Asia, with 2,292 listed companies.<ref name="NYSE">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="China becomes world's third largest stock market">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Japan approves merger of Tokyo and Osaka exchanges">Template:Cite news</ref> The Nikkei 225 and the TOPIX are the two important stock market indexes of the Tokyo Stock Exchange.<ref name="The Nikkei 225 Index Performance">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Tokyo Stock Exchange Tokyo Price Index TOPIX">Template:Cite news</ref> The Tokyo Stock Exchange and the Osaka Stock Exchange, another major stock exchange in Japan, merged on 1 January 2013, creating one of the world's largest stock exchanges.<ref name="Japan approves merger of Tokyo and Osaka exchanges" /> Other stock exchanges in Japan include the Nagoya Stock Exchange, Fukuoka Stock Exchange and Sapporo Securities Exchange.<ref name="Horizons introduces leveraged and inverse MSCI Japan ETFs">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="About JSCCHistory">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Labor force

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Unemployment rate in Japan.svg

Unemployment rate of Japan.<ref name="OECDemp">Template:Citation</ref> Red line is G7 average.
15-24 age (thin line) is youth unemployment.

The unemployment rate in December 2013 was 3.7%, down 1.5 percentage points from the claimed unemployment rate of 5.2% in June 2009 due to the strong economic recovery.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Japan's Jobless Rate Five-Year High">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Japan's Unemployment Rate Drops to Six-Year Low">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 2008 Japan's labor force consisted of some 66 million workers—40% of whom were women—and was rapidly shrinking.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> One major long-term concern for the Japanese labor force is its low birthrate.<ref name="Japan's Biggest Challenge">Template:Cite news</ref> In 2005, the number of deaths in Japan exceeded the number of births, indicating that the decline in population had already started.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> While one countermeasure for a declining birthrate would be to increase immigration, Japan has struggled to attract potential migrants despite immigration laws being relatively lenient (especially for high-skilled workers) compared to other developed countries.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> This is also apparent when looking at Japan's work visa programme for "specified skilled worker", which had less than 3,000 applicants, despite an annual goal of attracting 40,000 overseas workers, suggesting Japan faces major challenges in attracting migrants compared to other developed countries regardless of its immigration policies.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A Gallup poll found that few potential migrants wished to migrate to Japan compared to other G7 countries, consistent with the country's low migrant inflow.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 1989, the predominantly public sector union confederation, SOHYO (General Council of Trade Unions of Japan), merged with RENGO (Japanese Private Sector Trade Union Confederation) to form the Japanese Trade Union Confederation. Labor union membership is about 12 million.

As of 2019 Japan's unemployment rate was the lowest in the G7.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Its employment rate for the working-age population (15–64) was the highest in the G7.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Law and government

Japan ranks 27th of 185 countries in the ease of doing business index 2013.<ref name="Economy Rankings">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Japan has one of the smallest tax rates in the developed world.<ref name="oecd2008" /> After deductions, the majority of workers are free from personal income taxes. Consumption tax rate is 10%, while corporate tax rates are high, second highest corporate tax rate in the world, at 36.8%.<ref name="oecd2008" /><ref name="US displacing Japan as No 1 for highest corp taxes">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="U.S. corporate tax rate: No. 1 in the world">Template:Cite news</ref> However, the House of Representatives has passed a bill which increased the consumption tax to 10% in October 2015.<ref name="Lower House passes bills to double consumption tax">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The government has also decided to reduce corporate tax and to phase out automobile tax.<ref name="Big firms to see tax cut on social expenses">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Japan to Phase Out Automobile Tax">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 2016, the IMF encouraged Japan to adopt an income policy that pushes firms to raise employee wages in combination with reforms to tackle the labor market dual tiered employment system to drive higher wages, on top of monetary and fiscal stimulus. Shinzo Abe has encouraged firms to raise wages by at least three per cent annually (the inflation target plus average productivity growth).<ref name="Overhyped, underappreciated">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Shareholder activism is rare despite the fact that the corporate law gives shareholders strong powers over managers.<ref name="Shareholder Activism in Japan? Not Yet">Template:Cite news</ref> Under Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, corporate governance reform has been a key initiative to encourage economic growth. In 2012, only around 40% of leading Japanese companies had any independent directors; by 2016, the majority had begun to appoint independent directors.<ref name="Overhyped, underappreciated" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

The government's liabilities include the second largest public debt of any nation with debt of over one quadrillion yen, or 8,535,340,000,000 in USD.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Japan's Debt About 3 Times Larger Than ASEAN's GDP">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Japan Gets to Know a Quadrillion as Debt Hits New High">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Former Prime Minister Naoto Kan has called the situation 'urgent'.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Japan's central bank has the second largest foreign-exchange reserves after the People's Republic of China, with over one trillion US Dollars in foreign reserves.<ref name="Japan's forex reserves up">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Culture

Overview

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), 'consensus building', in Japanese culture is an informal process of quietly laying the foundation for some proposed change or project, by talking to the people concerned, gathering support and feedback, and so forth. It is considered an important element in any major change, before any formal steps are taken, and successful nemawashi enables changes to be carried out with the consent of all sides.

Japanese companies are known for management methods such as "The Toyota Way". {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (改善, Japanese for 'improvement') is a Japanese philosophy that focuses on continuous improvement throughout all aspects of life. When applied to the workplace, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} activities continually improve all functions of a business, from manufacturing to management and from the CEO to the assembly line workers.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By improving standardised activities and processes, Kaizen aims to eliminate waste (see Lean manufacturing). {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} was first implemented in several Japanese businesses during the country's recovery after World War II, including Toyota, and has since spread to businesses throughout the world.<ref>Europe Japan Centre, Kaizen Strategies for Improving Team Performance, Ed. Michael Colenso, London: Pearson Education Limited, 2000</ref> The corporate application of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} system has been criticised for neglecting or harming the quality of life of workers, particularly via the implementation of long working hours. However, according to the OECD, Japan's average for annual hours worked per employee is lower than the OECD average and middling among G7 countries.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Some companies have powerful enterprise unions and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} system or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} as it is called in Japan, is the Japanese system of preferring to promote employees close to retirement. This is done to prioritise experience in executive positions and to allow older employees to achieve a higher salary level before retirement. The {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} system has been criticised for leaving younger employees at a disadvantage against older employees who may be less capable.

Relationships between government bureaucrats and companies are often close. Template:Nihongo is the institutionalised practice where Japanese senior bureaucrats retire to high-profile positions in the private and public sectors. The practice is increasingly viewed as corrupt and a limitation on efforts to reduce ties between the private sector and the state that prevent economic and political reforms. Lifetime employment (shūshin koyō) and seniority-based career advancement have been common in the Japanese work environment.<ref name="oecd2008">OECD: Economic survey of Japan 2008 Template:Webarchive</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> These practices have become less common in recent years.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Template:Nihongo refers to someone whose income is salary-based; particularly those working for corporations. Coined in Japan, the word's frequent use by Japanese corporations and its prevalence in Japanese manga and anime has led to its adoption into and common usage within the English language to refer to Japanese white-collar workers, and it can be found in many English-language books and articles pertaining to Japanese culture. Immediately following World War II, becoming a salaryman was viewed as a gateway to a stable, middle-class lifestyle. In modern use, the term carries associations of long working hours, low prestige in the corporate hierarchy, absence of significant sources of income other than salary, wage slavery, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. The term salaryman refers almost exclusively to males.Template:Citation needed

An office lady, often abbreviated OL (Japanese: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), is a female office worker in Japan who performs generally pink collar tasks such as serving tea and doing secretarial or clerical work. Like many unmarried Japanese, OLs often live with their parents well into early adulthood. Office ladies are usually full-time permanent staff, with little opportunity for promotion, and there is often a tacit expectation that they leave their jobs if they get married.Template:Citation needed

Template:Nihongo is a Japanese expression for people between the age of 15 and 34 who lack full-time employment or are unemployed, excluding homemakers and students.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> They may also be described as underemployed or freelance workers. These people do not start a career after high school or university but instead usually live as parasite singles with their parents and earn some money with low skilled and low paid jobs. Low income makes it difficult for freeters to start a family, and lacking qualifications in the form of skilled labor experience makes it difficult for them to start a career at a later point in life.Template:Citation needed

Template:Nihongo, which can be translated quite literally from Japanese as "death from overwork", is occupational sudden death. The major medical causes of karōshi deaths are heart attack and stroke due to stress.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Template:Nihongo, (sometimes also translated as 'corporate bouncers', 'meeting-men', or 'corporate blackmailers') are a form of specialised racketeer unique to Japan, and often associated with the yakuza, who extort money from or blackmail companies by threatening to publicly humiliate companies and their management, usually in their Template:Nihongo. Template:Nihongo is a Japanese term for 'moneylender' or 'loan shark'. It is a contraction of the Japanese words for 'salaryman' and 'cash'. Around 14 million people, or 10% of the Japanese population, have borrowed from a {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. In total, there are about 10,000 firms (down from 30,000 a decade ago); however, the top seven firms make up 70% of the market. The value of outstanding loans totals 100 billion. The biggest sarakin are publicly traded and often allied with big banks.<ref name="economist">Lenders of first resort Template:Webarchive, The Economist, 22 May 2008</ref>

The first "Western-style" department store in Japan (called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) was Mitsukoshi, founded in 1904, which has its root as a kimono store called Echigoya from 1673. When the roots are considered, however, Matsuzakaya has an even longer history, dating back to 1611 and becoming a department store in 1910. In 1924, Matsuzakaya store in Ginza allowed street shoes to be worn indoors, something innovative at the time.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> These former kimono shop department stores dominated the market in its earlier history. They sold luxurious products which contributed to them having sophisticated atmospheres. From the 1920s, private railway operators started to build department stores directly linked to their lines' terminuses. Seibu and Hankyu are examples of this practice. From the 1980s onwards, Japanese department stores have faced fierce competition from supermarkets and convenience stores, and they have gradually declined in prominence. Still, depāto are seen as bastions of cultural conservatism in the country. Gift certificates for department stores are frequently given as presents in Japan. Department stores in Japan generally offer a wide range of services which can include foreign exchange, travel reservations, and ticket sales for local concerts and other events.Template:Citation needed

Keiretsu

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} A Template:Nihongo is a set of companies with interlocking business relationships and shareholdings. A keiretsu unequivocally exists as an identical form of business structure to the affiliate, or an associate.Template:Citation needed It is a type of business group. The prototypical {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} appeared in Japan during the "economic miracle" following World War II. Before Japan's surrender, Japanese industry was controlled by large family-controlled vertical monopolies called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. The Allies dismantled the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} in the late 1940s, but the companies formed from the dismantling of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were reintegrated. The dispersed corporations were re-interlinked through share purchases to form horizontally integrated alliances across many industries. Where possible, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} companies would also supply one another, making the alliances vertically integrated as well. In this period, official government policy promoted the creation of robust trade corporations that could withstand pressures from intensified world trade competition.<ref>"Japan Again Plans Huge Corporations" Template:Webarchive. The New York Times. 17 July 1954.</ref>

The major {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} were each centered on one bank, which lent money to the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}'s member companies and held equity positions in the companies. Each central bank had great control over the companies in the keiretsu and acted as a monitoring entity and as an emergency bail-out entity. One effect of this structure was to minimise the presence of hostile takeovers in Japan, because no entities could challenge the power of the banks.Template:Citation needed

There are two types of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}: vertical and horizontal. Vertical keiretsu illustrates the organisation and relationships within a company (for example all factors of production of a certain product are connected), while a horizontal keiretsu shows relationships between entities and industries, normally centered on a bank and trading company. Both are complexly woven together and sustain each other.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The Japanese recession in the 1990s had profound effects on the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Many of the largest banks were hit hard by bad loan portfolios and forced to merge or go out of business. This had the effect of blurring the lines between the keiretsu: Sumitomo Bank and Mitsui Bank, for instance, became Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation in 2001, while Sanwa Bank (the banker for the Hankyu-Toho Group) became part of Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, now known as MUFG Bank. Additionally, many companies from outside the keiretsu system, such as Sony, began outperforming their counterparts within the system.Template:Citation needed

Generally, these causes gave rise to a strong notion in the business community that the old {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} system was not an effective business model, and led to an overall loosening of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} alliances. While the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} still exist, they are not as centralised or integrated as they were before the 1990s. This, in turn, has led to a growing corporate acquisition industry in Japan, as companies are no longer able to be easily "bailed out" by their banks, as well as rising derivative litigation by more independent shareholders.Template:Citation needed

Mergers and acquisitions

Japanese companies have been involved in 50,759 deals between 1985 and 2018. This cumulates to a total value of US$2.636 billion which translates to ¥281.469 trillion.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 1999, there was an all-time high in terms of value of deals with almost US$220 billion. The most active year so far was 2017 with over 3,150 deals, but only a total value of US$114 billion (see graph "M&A in Japan by number and value").Template:Citation needed

Here is a list of the most important deals (ranked by value in US$ [billion]) in Japanese history:Template:Citation needed

Date announced	Acquiror name	Acquiror mid industry	Acquiror state	Target name	Target mid industry	Target state	Value of transaction ($mil)
13 October 1999	Sumitomo Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	Sakura Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	45,494.36
18 February 2005	Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Grp	Banks	Japan	UFJ Holdings Inc	Banks	Japan	41,431.03
20 August 1999	Fuji Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	Dai-Ichi Kangyo Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	40,096.63
27 March 1995	Mitsubishi Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	Bank of Tokyo Ltd	Banks	Japan	33,787.73
18 July 2016	SoftBank Group Corp	Wireless	Japan	ARM Holdings PLC	Semiconductors	United Kingdom	31,879.49
20 August 1999	Fuji Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	Industrial Bank of Japan Ltd	Banks	Japan	30,759.61
24 August 2004	Sumitomo Mitsui Finl Grp Inc	Banks	Japan	UFJ Holdings Inc	Banks	Japan	29,261.48
28 August 1989	Mitsui Taiyo Kobe Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	Taiyo Kobe Bank Ltd	Banks	Japan	23,016.80
15 October 2012	SoftBank Corp	Wireless	Japan	Sprint Nextel Corp	Telecommunications Services	United States	21,640.00
20 September 2017	KK Pangea	Other Financials	Japan	Toshiba Memory Corp	Semiconductors	Japan	17,930.00

Among the top 50 deals by value, 92% of the time the acquiring nation is Japan. Foreign direct investment is playing a much smaller role than national M&A in Japan.

Other economic indicators

File:Current Account Balance 2006.png

Current account balance (2006)<ref>Current account balance, U.S. dollars, Billions from IMF World Economic Outlook Database, April 2008</ref>

Net international investment position: 266,223 / billion<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> (1st)<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Industrial production growth rate: 7.5% (2010 est.)

Investment (gross fixed): 20.3% of GDP (2010 est.)

Household income or consumption by percentage share:

• Lowest 10%: 4.8%
• Highest 10%: 21.7% (1993)

Agriculture products: rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish

Export commodities: machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, semiconductors, chemicals<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Import commodities: machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, raw materials (2001)

Exchange rates:
Japanese Yen per US$1 – 88.67 (2010), 93.57 (2009), 103.58 (2008), 117.99 (2007), 116.18 (2006), 109.69 (2005), 115.93 (2003), 125.39 (2002), 121.53 (2001), 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06 (1995)

Electricity:

• Electricity – consumption: 925.5 billion kWh (2008)
• Electricity – production: 957.9 billion kWh (2008 est.)
• Electricity – exports: 0 kWh (2008)
• Electricity – imports: 0 kWh (2008)

Electricity production by source:

• Fossil Fuel: 69.7%
• Hydro: 7.3%
• Nuclear: 22.5%
• Other: 0.5% (2008)

Electricity standards:

• 100 volts at 50 Hz from the Ōi River (in Shizuoka) Northward;
• 100 volts at 60 Hz Southward

Oil:

• production: Template:Convert (2009) (46th)
• consumption: Template:Convert (2009) (3rd)
• exports: Template:Convert (2008) (64th)
• imports: Template:Convert (2008) (2nd)
• net imports: Template:Convert (2008 est.)
• proved reserves: Template:Convert (1 January 2010 est.)

See also

• Economic history of Japan
• Economic relations of Japan
• List of exports of Japan
• List of countries by leading trade partners
• List of the largest trading partners of Japan
• List of largest Japanese companies
• Japan External Trade Organization
• Tokugawa coinage
• Tourism in Japan
• Japanese post-war economic miracle
• Japanese asset price bubble
• Machine orders, an economic indicator specific to the Japanese economy
• Quantitative easing
• Loans in Japan
• Unemployment insurance in Japan
• Welfare in Japan

External links

• Template:Britannica
• Bank of Japan Template:Webarchive
• Minister of Finance (Japan) Template:Webarchive
• Cabinet Office Monthly Economic Report and Main Economic Indicators Template:Webarchive
• Japan profile Template:Webarchive at The World Bank
• Japan - OECD Template:Webarchive
• Japan Trade Organization Template:Webarchive