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MaryTemplate:Efn was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of Christianity, venerated under various titles such as virgin or queen, many of them mentioned in the Litany of Loreto. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, Reformed, Baptist, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the Mother of God. The Church of the East historically regarded her as Christotokos, a term still used in Assyrian Church of the East liturgy.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Other Protestant views on Mary vary, with some holding her to have lesser status. She has the highest position in Islam among all women and is mentioned numerous times in the Quran, including in a chapter named after her.<ref>Quran 3:42; cited in Stowasser, Barbara Freyer, "Mary", in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC.</ref><ref>J. D. McAuliffe, Chosen of all women.</ref><ref name="Jestice">Jestice, Phyllis G. Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia, Volume 3. 2004, Template:ISBN, p. 558 Sayyidana Maryam. Template:Webarchive.</ref> She is also revered in the Baháʼí Faith and the Druze Faith.<ref name="Glenn2012" />
The synoptic Gospels name Mary as the mother of Jesus. The gospels of Matthew and Luke describe Mary as a virginTemplate:Efn who was chosen by God to conceive Jesus through the Holy Spirit. After giving birth to Jesus in Bethlehem, she and her husband Joseph raised him in the city of Nazareth in Galilee, and she was in Jerusalem at his crucifixion and with the apostles after his ascension. Although her later life is not accounted in the Bible, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and some Protestant traditions believe that her body was raised into heaven at the end of her earthly life, which is known in Western Christianity as the Assumption of Mary and in Eastern Christianity as the Dormition of the Mother of God.
Mary has been venerated since early Christianity,<ref name="Burke, Raymond L. 2008 page 178">Mark Miravalle, Raymond L. Burke; (2008). Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons, Template:ISBN, p. 178.</ref><ref name="Tim S. Perry page 142">Mary for evangelicals by Tim S. Perry, William J. Abraham 2006 Template:ISBN p. 142</ref> and is often considered to be the holiest and greatest saint. There is a certain diversity in the Mariology and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Catholic Church and some Oriental Orthodox Churches hold distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her Immaculate Conception and her bodily Assumption into heaven.<ref name=Houghton>"Mary, the mother of Jesus" The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Houghton Mifflin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. Credo Reference. Web. 28 September 2010.</ref> Many Protestants hold less exalted views of Mary's role, often based on a perceived lack of biblical support for many traditional Christian dogmas pertaining to her.<ref name=protestantencyclopedia />
The multiple forms of Marian devotions include various prayers and hymns, the celebration of several Marian feast days in liturgy, the veneration of images and relics, the construction of churches dedicated to her and pilgrimages to Marian shrines. Many Marian apparitions and miracles attributed to her intercession have been reported by believers over the centuries. She has been a traditional subject in arts, notably in Byzantine art, medieval art and Renaissance art.
Names and titlesEdit
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Mary's name in the original manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, transliterated as Template:Transliteration or Template:Transliteration.<ref>"Mary", A Dictionary of First Names by Patrick Hanks, Kate Hardcastle and Flavia Hodges (2006). Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.</ref> The English name Mary comes from the Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, a shortened form of the name {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Both {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} appear in the New Testament.
In ChristianityEdit
In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that the Holy Spirit impregnated her, thereby conceiving her first-born son Jesus miraculously, without sexual relations with her betrothed Joseph, "until her son [Jesus] was born".<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> The word "until" has inspired considerable analysis on whether Joseph and Mary produced siblings after the birth of Jesus or not.Template:Efn Among her many other names and titles are the Blessed Virgin Mary (often abbreviated to "BVM" after the Latin {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Saint Mary (occasionally), the Mother of God (primarily in Western Christianity), the Template:Transliteration (primarily in Eastern Christianity), Our Lady (Medieval Template:Langx), and Queen of Heaven ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}; see also here).<ref>Encyclopedia of Catholicism by Frank K. Flinn, J. Gordon Melton, 2007, Template:ISBN, pp. 443–444</ref><ref name="Hillerbrand">Hillerbrand, Hans Joachim. Encyclopedia of Protestantism, Volume 3, 2003. Template:ISBN, p. 1174</ref> The title "queen of heaven" had previously been used as an epithet for a number of goddesses, such as Isis, or Ishtar.
Titles in use vary among Anglicans, Lutherans and other Protestants, as well as Mormons, Catholics, Orthodox and other Christians.
The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or "God-bearer"), Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) which means ever-virgin, as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, and Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) meaning "all-holy".<ref name="Fairbairn" /> Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions.
The title Template:Transliteration, which means "God-bearer", was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The direct equivalents of title in Latin are {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, although the phrase is more often loosely translated into Latin as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ("Mother of God"), with similar patterns for other languages used in the Latin Church. However, this same phrase in Greek ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), in the abbreviated form {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers "did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God".<ref name="ccel.org">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>M'Corry, John StewartTheotokos: Or, the Divine Maternity. 2009 Template:ISBN p. 10</ref><ref>The Christian theology reader by Alister E. McGrath 2006 Template:ISBN p. 273</ref>
Some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title "Queen Mother" has been given to Mary, as she was the mother of Jesus, sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" due to his ancestral descent from King David.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref><ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref><ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref><ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref><ref>What Every Catholic Should Know about Mary by Terrence J. McNally Template:ISBN p. 128</ref> This is also based on the Hebrew tradition of the "Queen-Mother", the Gebirah or "Great Lady".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals, or occasions for calling on Mary.Template:Efn
In IslamEdit
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In Islam, Mary is known as Maryam (Template:Langx), mother of Isa ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Transliteration, Template:Literal translation). She is often referred to by the honorific title Template:Transliteration, meaning "Our Lady"; this title is in parallel to Template:Transliteration ("Our Lord"), used for the prophets.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> A related term of endearment is Template:Transliteration,<ref>Template:Qref</ref> meaning "she who confirms the truth" and "she who believes sincerely completely". Another title for Mary is Template:Transliteration, which signifies both constant submission to God and absorption in prayer and invocation in Islam.<ref name="qref|66|12|b=y">Template:Qref</ref> She is also called Template:Transliteration, meaning "one who has been purified" and representing her status as one of two humans in creation to not be touched by Satan at any point, the other being Jesus.<ref name="qref|3|36|b=y">Template:Qref</ref> In the Quran, she is described both as "the daughter of Imran" and "the sister of Aaron", alluding to Miriam from the Hebrew Bible.<ref>Template:Qref</ref> However, the title of "the sister of Aaron" is confirmed to be metaphorical (which is a common figure of speech in Arabic) as per a Hadith from the Islamic prophet Muhammad explaining Mary was indeed named after Miriam.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Life in ancient sourcesEdit
New TestamentEdit
The canonical Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are the primary sources of historical information about Mary.<ref name="hesemann"/><ref name="canales"/> They are almost contemporary sources, as the synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are generally considered dating from around AD 66–90, while the gospel of John dates from AD 90–110. They provide limited information about Mary, as they primarily focus on the teaching of Jesus and on his apostles.<ref name="hesemann"/> The historical reliability of the Gospels and historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles are subject to debate, as it was common practice in early Christian writings to mix historical facts with legendary stories.<ref name="hesemann">Template:Cite book</ref>
The earliest New Testament account of Mary is in the epistle to the Galatians, which was written before the gospels. She is referred to as "a woman" and is not named: "But when the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law" (Galatians 4:4).<ref name="canales">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Mary is mentioned several times in the canonical Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles:
- The Gospel of Luke mentions Mary the most often, identifying her by name twelve times, all of these in the infancy narrative (Luke 1:27–2:34).<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
- The Gospel of Matthew mentions her by name five times, four of these (1:16, 18, 20; 2:11)<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> in the infancy narrative and once (Matthew 13:55)<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> outside the infancy narrative.
- The Gospel of Mark names her once (Mark 6:3)<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> and mentions Jesus' mother without naming her in Mark 3:31–32.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
- The Gospel of John refers to the mother of Jesus twice, but never mentions her name. She is first seen at the wedding at Cana (John 2:1–12).<ref name="auto">Template:Bibleverse</ref> The second reference has her standing near the cross of Jesus together with Mary Magdalene, Mary of Clopas (or Cleophas), and her own sister (possibly the same as Mary of Clopas; the wording is semantically ambiguous), along with the "disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 19:25–26).<ref name="auto1">Template:Bibleverse</ref> John 2:1–12<ref name="auto"/> is the only text in the canonical gospels in which the adult Jesus has a conversation with Mary. He does not address her as "Mother" but as "Woman". In Koine Greek (the language that the Gospel of John was composed in), calling one's mother "Woman" was not disrespectful, and could even be tender.<ref>William Temple, Readings in St John's Gospel. London, England: MacMillan, 1961. pp. 35, 36.</ref> Accordingly, some versions of the Bible translate it as "Dear woman".<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
- In the Acts of the Apostles, Mary and the brothers of Jesus are mentioned in the company of the eleven apostles who are gathered in the upper room after the Ascension of Jesus (Acts 1:14).<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
In the Book of Revelation, also part of the New Testament, the "woman clothed with the sun" (Revelation 12:1, 12:5–6)<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> is sometimes identified as Mary.
GenealogyEdit
The New Testament tells little of Mary's early history. The Gospel of Matthew gives a genealogy for Jesus by his father's paternal line, only identifying Mary as the wife of Joseph. John 19:25<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> states that Mary had a sister; semantically it is unclear if this sister is the same as Mary of Clopas, or if she is left unnamed. Jerome identifies Mary of Clopas as the sister of Mary, mother of Jesus.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to the early 2nd century historian Hegesippus, Mary of Clopas was likely Mary's sister-in-law, understanding Clopas (Cleophas) to have been Joseph's brother.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
According to the writer of Luke, Mary was a relative of Elizabeth, wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of Abijah, who was herself part of the lineage of Aaron and so of the Tribe of Levi.<ref>Template:Bibleverse,Template:Bibleverse</ref> Some of those who believe that the relationship with Elizabeth was on the maternal side, believe that Mary, like Joseph, was of the royal Davidic line and so of the Tribe of Judah, and that the genealogy of Jesus presented in Luke 3 from Nathan, is in fact the genealogy of Mary, while the genealogy from Solomon given in Matthew 1 is that of Joseph.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> (Aaron's wife Elisheba was of the tribe of Judah, so all their descendants are from both Levi and Judah.)<ref>Template:Bibleverse; Template:Bibleverse</ref>
AnnunciationEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Mary resided in "her own house"<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> in Nazareth in Galilee, possibly with her parents, and during her betrothal—the first stage of a Jewish marriage. Jewish girls were considered marriageable at the age of twelve years and six months, though the actual age of the bride varied with circumstances. The marriage was preceded by the betrothal, after which the bride legally belonged to the bridegroom, though she did not live with him till about a year later, when the marriage was celebrated.<ref name="auto2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promised Messiah by conceiving him through the Holy Spirit, and, after initially expressing incredulity at the announcement, she responded, "I am the handmaid of the Lord. Let it be done unto me according to your word."<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>Template:Efn Joseph planned to quietly divorce her, but was told her conception was by the Holy Spirit in a dream by "an angel of the Lord"; the angel told him to not hesitate to take her as his wife, which Joseph did, thereby formally completing the wedding rites.<ref>Mills, Watson E., Roger Aubrey Bullard. Mercer dictionary of the Bible. 1998 Template:ISBN p. 429</ref><ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary that Elizabeth—having previously been barren—was then miraculously pregnant,<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> Mary hurried to see Elizabeth, who was living with her husband Zechariah in "the hill country..., [in] a city of Juda". Mary arrived at the house and greeted Elizabeth who called Mary "the mother of my Lord", and Mary spoke the words of praise that later became known as the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} from her first word in the Latin version.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> After about three months, Mary returned to her own house.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
Birth of JesusEdit
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According to the gospel of Luke, a decree of the Roman Emperor Augustus required that Joseph return to his hometown of Bethlehem to register for a Roman census.Template:Efn While he was there with Mary, she gave birth to Jesus; but because there was no place for them in the inn, she used a manger as a cradle.<ref name=Brown1>Brown, Raymond Edward. Mary in the New Testament. 1978 Template:ISBN</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> It is not told how old Mary was at the time of the Nativity,<ref name=":0" /> but attempts have been made to infer it from the age of a typical Jewish mother of that time. Mary Joan Winn Leith represents the view that Jewish girls typically married soon after the onset of puberty,<ref>Leith, Mary Joan Winn: Mary, Mother of Jesus. In Coogan, Michael (ed.): Oxford Encyclopedias of the Bible: Digital Collection. Oxford University Press, 2022. ISBN 9780197669402.</ref> while according to Amram Tropper, Jewish females generally married later in Palestine and the Western Diaspora than in Babylonia.<ref name=":1">Tropper, A: Children and Childhood in Light of the Demographics of the Jewish Family in Late Antiquity. Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, Vol. 37, 2006, 3, pp. 299–343.</ref> Some scholars hold the view that among them it typically happened between their mid and late teen years<ref name="Keener Walton 2019 p. 2147">Template:Cite book</ref> or late teens and early twenties.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> After eight days, the boy was circumcised according to Jewish law and named "Jesus" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Transliteration), which means "Yahweh is salvation".<ref>The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 Template:ISBN p. 53</ref>
After Mary continued in the "blood of her purifying" another 33 days, for a total of 40 days, she brought her burnt offering and sin offering to the Temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:22),<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> so the priest could make atonement for her.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> They also presented JesusTemplate:Snd"As it is written in the law of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23; Exodus 13:2; 23:12–15; 22:29; 34:19–20; Numbers 3:13; 18:15).<ref>Template:Bibleverse; Template:Bibleverse; Template:Bibleverse</ref> After the prophecies of Simeon and the prophetess Anna in Luke 2:25–38,<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> the family "returned into Galilee, to their own city Nazareth".<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
According to the gospel of Matthew, magi coming from Eastern regions arrived at Bethlehem where Jesus and his family were living, and worshiped him. Joseph was then warned in a dream that King Herod wanted to murder the infant, and the family fled by night to Egypt and stayed there for some time. After Herod's death in 4 BC, they returned to Nazareth in Galilee, rather than Bethlehem, because Herod's son Archelaus was the ruler of Judaea.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus' adolescent life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of 12, Jesus, having become separated from his parents on their return journey from the Passover celebration in Jerusalem, was found in the Temple among the religious teachers.<ref>Walvoord, John F.; Roy B. Zuck. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edition. 1983. Template:ISBN.</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
Ministry of JesusEdit
Mary was present when, at her suggestion, Jesus worked his first miracle during a wedding at Cana by turning water into wine.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> Subsequently, there are events when Mary is mentioned along with the Jesus' brothers.<ref>Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse</ref> According to Epiphanius, Origen and Eusebius, these "brothers" would be sons of Joseph from a previous marriage. This view is still the official position of the Eastern Orthodox churches. Following Jerome, those would be actually Jesus' cousins, children of Mary's sister. This remains the official Roman Catholic position. For Helvidius, those would be full siblings of Jesus, born to Mary and Joseph after the firstborn Jesus. This has been the most common Protestant position.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible by D. N. Freedman, David Noel, Allen Myers and Astrid B. Beck (2000) Template:ISBN p. 202</ref><ref>The Bible: The Basics by John Barton (2010) Routledge Template:ISBN p. 7</ref>
The hagiography of Mary and the Holy Family can be contrasted with other material in the Gospels. These references include an incident which can be interpreted as Jesus rejecting his family in the New Testament: "And his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside, they sent in a message asking for him ... And looking at those who sat in a circle around him, Jesus said, 'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother'."<ref>Gaventa, Beverly Roberts. Mary: glimpses of the mother of Jesus. 1995 Template:ISBN, p. 70</ref><ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
Mary is also depicted as being present in a group of women at the crucifixion standing near the disciple whom Jesus loved along with Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene,<ref name="auto1"/> to which list Matthew 27:56<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> adds "the mother of the sons of Zebedee", presumably the Salome mentioned in Mark 15:40.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
After the Ascension of JesusEdit
In Acts 1:12–26,<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> especially verse 14, Mary is the only one other than the eleven apostles to be mentioned by name who abode in the upper room, when they returned from Mount Olivet. Her presence with the apostles during the Pentecost is not explicit, although it has been held as a fact by Christian tradition.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
From this time, she disappears from the biblical accounts, although it is held by Catholics that she is again portrayed as the heavenly woman in the Book of Revelation.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref>
Her death is not recorded in the scriptures, but Orthodox tradition, tolerated also by Catholics, has her first dying a natural death, known as the Dormition of Mary,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and then, soon after, her body itself also being assumed (taken bodily) into Heaven. Belief in the corporeal assumption of Mary is a dogma of the Catholic Church, in the Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches alike, and is believed as well by the Eastern Orthodox Church,<ref>Stephen J. Shoemaker, Ancient Traditions of the Virgin Mary's Dormition and Assumption. Template:Webarchive. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2002, 2006); De Obitu S. Dominae as noted in; Holweck, F. (1907). The Feast of the Assumption. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref><ref name= Munificentissimus >{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the Oriental Orthodox Church, and parts of the Anglican Communion and Continuing Anglican movement.<ref>Coptic Church website Template:Webarchive, Accessed 2010/10/6.</ref>
Later writingsEdit
Template:Christianity According to the apocryphal Gospel of James, Mary was the daughter of Joachim and Anne. Before Mary's conception, Anne had been barren and was far advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a consecrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old.<ref name="ReferenceA">Ronald Brownrigg, Canon Brownrigg. Who's Who in the New Testament, 2001. Template:ISBN, p. T-62.</ref> This was in spite of the patent impossibility of its premise that a girl could be kept in the Temple of Jerusalem along with some companions.<ref name="Roy2005">Template:Cite book</ref>
Some unproven apocryphal accounts, such as the apocryphal Gospel of James, state that at the time of her betrothal to Joseph, Mary was 12–14 years old<ref>Gospel of James 8:2</ref> and suggests she was 16 during her pregnancy.<ref>Gospel of James 12:3</ref><ref name="NewAdvent">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Her age during her pregnancy has varied up to 17 in apocryphal sources.<ref>Vuong, Lily C.: Gender and Purity in the Protevangelium of James, p. 171. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013.</ref><ref>Seppälä, Serafim: Elämän äiti: Neitsyt Maria varhaiskristillisessä teologiassa, pp. 40–41. Helsinki: Maahenki, 2010. Template:ISBN.</ref> In a large part, apocryphal texts are historically unreliable.<ref>Seppälä, Serafim: Elämän äiti: Neitsyt Maria varhaiskristillisessä teologiassa, pp. 21–22. Helsinki: Maahenki, 2010.</ref> According to ancient Jewish custom, Mary technically could have been betrothed at about 12,<ref name="Allison">Allison, Dale C., Matthew: A Shorter Commentary, p. 12 Template:Webarchive Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004 Template:ISBN</ref> but some scholars hold the view that in Judea it typically happened later.<ref name=":0">Levine, Amy-Jill & Witherington III, Ben: The Gospel of Luke, p. 34. Cambridge University Press, 2018. Template:ISBN.</ref>
Hyppolitus of Thebes says that Mary lived for 11 years after the death of her son Jesus, dying in 41 AD.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The earliest extant biographical writing on Mary is Life of the Virgin, attributed to the 7th-century saint Maximus the Confessor, which portrays her as a key element of the early Christian Church after the death of Jesus.<ref name=oxf >The Oxford handbook of early Christian studies by Susan Ashbrook Harvey, David G. Hunter 2008 Template:ISBN p. 527</ref><ref>The reception and interpretation of the Bible in late antiquity by Lorenzo DiTommaso, Lucian Turcescu 2008 Template:ISBN p. 507</ref><ref name=Sally2009 >Maximus's Mary Template:Webarchive, by Sally Cuneen, Commonweal Magazine, 4 December 2009</ref>
Religious perspectivesEdit
ChristianEdit
Template:See also Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention to Mariological themes. Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutherans venerate the Virgin Mary. This veneration especially takes the form of prayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus Christ. Additionally, it includes composing poems and songs in Mary's honor, painting icons or carving statues of her, and conferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among the saints.<ref name="Hillerbrand" /><ref name="Fairbairn" /><ref name="FrankFlinn" /><ref name="Schroedel81" />
CatholicEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title "Blessed" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Transliteration) in recognition of her assumption to Heaven and her capacity to intercede on behalf of those who pray to her. There is a difference between the usage of the term "blessed" as pertaining to Mary and its usage as pertaining to a beatified person. "Blessed" as a Marian title refers to her exalted state as being the greatest among the saints; for a person who has been declared beatified, on the other hand, "blessed" simply indicates that they may be venerated despite not being canonized. Catholic teachings make clear that Mary is not considered divine and prayers to her are not answered by her, but rather by God through her intercession.<ref>Miegge, Giovanni, The Virgin Mary: Roman Catholic Marian Doctrine, pp. 15–22, Westminster Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1963.</ref> The four Catholic dogmas regarding Mary are: her status as Template:Transliteration, or Mother of God; her perpetual virginity; the Immaculate Conception; and her bodily Assumption into Heaven.<ref name="Fahlbusch" /><ref>Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions by Wendy Doniger, 1999 Template:ISBN p. 696</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The Blessed Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus has a more central role in Roman Catholic teachings and beliefs than in any other major Christian group. Not only do Roman Catholics have more theological doctrines and teachings that relate to Mary, but they have more feasts, prayers, devotional and venerative practices than any other group.<ref name=FrankFlinn /> The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "The Church's devotion to the Blessed Virgin is intrinsic to Christian worship."<ref name="ccc971">Template:Cite CCC</ref>
For centuries, Catholics have performed acts of consecration and entrustment to Mary at personal, societal and regional levels. These acts may be directed to the Virgin herself, to the Immaculate Heart of Mary and to the Immaculate Conception. In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute the love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God.<ref>The Catholicism Answer Book by John Trigilio, Kenneth Brighenti 2007 Template:ISBN p. 325</ref><ref name="VaticanEntrust">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Following the growth of Marian devotions in the 16th century, Catholic saints wrote books such as Glories of Mary and True Devotion to Mary that emphasized Marian veneration and taught that "the path to Jesus is through Mary".<ref>Schroede, Jenny, The Everything Mary Book 2006 Template:ISBN p. 219</ref> Marian devotions are at times linked to Christocentric devotions (such as the Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary).<ref>O'Carroll, Michael, The Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary 2007, Template:ISBN pp. 10–15</ref>
Major Marian devotions include: Seven Sorrows of Mary, Rosary and scapular, Miraculous Medal and Reparations to Mary.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The months of May and October are traditionally "Marian months" for Roman Catholics; the daily rosary is encouraged in October and in May Marian devotions take place in many regions.<ref>Handbook of Prayers by James Socías 2006 Template:ISBN p. 483</ref><ref>The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2005 Template:ISBN p. 575</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Popes have issued a number of Marian encyclicals and Apostolic Letters to encourage devotions to and the veneration of the Virgin Mary.
Catholics place high emphasis on Mary's roles as protector and intercessor and the Catechism refers to Mary as "honored with the title 'Mother of God', to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and needs".<ref name="ccc971"/><ref>A Beginner's Book of Prayer: An Introduction to Traditional Catholic Prayers by William G. Storey 2009 Template:ISBN p. 99</ref><ref name="Ball365">Ann Ball, 2003 Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices Template:ISBN p. 365</ref><ref>Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Almanac by Matthew Bunson 2009 Template:ISBN p. 122</ref><ref>The Catholic Handbook for Visiting the Sick and Homebound by Corinna Laughlin, Sara McGinnis Lee 2010 Template:ISBN p. 4</ref> Key Marian prayers include: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref>Geoghegan. G.P. A Collection of My Favorite Prayers, 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 31, 45, 70, 86, 127</ref>
Mary's participation in the processes of salvation and redemption has also been emphasized in the Catholic tradition, but they are not doctrines.<ref>Mary, mother of the redemption by Edward Schillebeeckx 1964 Template:ASIN pp. 82–84</ref><ref>Mary in the Redemption by Adrienne von Speyr 2003 Template:ISBN pp. 2–7</ref><ref>Salvation Through Mary by Henry Aloysius Barry 2008 Template:ISBN pp. 13–15</ref><ref>The mystery of Mary by Paul Haffner 2004 Template:ISBN p. 198</ref> Pope John Paul II's 1987 encyclical {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} began with the sentence: "The Mother of the Redeemer has a precise place in the plan of salvation."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In the 20th century, both popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI emphasized the Marian focus of the Catholic Church. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) suggested a redirection of the whole church towards the program of Pope John Paul II in order to ensure an authentic approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary,"<ref name="BurkeMariology" /> writing:
"It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about the Church' and 'truth about man.Template:'"<ref name="BurkeMariology">Mark Miravalle, Raymond L. Burke; (2008). Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons Template:ISBN p. xxi</ref>
There is significant diversity in the Marian doctrines attributed to her primarily by the Catholic Church. The key Marian doctrines held primarily in Catholicism can be briefly outlined as follows:
- Immaculate Conception: Mary was conceived without original sin.
- Mother of God: Mary, as the mother of Jesus, is the Template:Transliteration (God-bearer), or Mother of God.
- Virgin birth of Jesus: Mary conceived Jesus by action of the Holy Spirit while remaining a virgin.
- Perpetual Virginity: Mary remained a virgin all her life, even after the act of giving birth to Jesus.
- Dormition: commemorates Mary's "falling asleep" or natural death shortly before her Assumption. Dormition is part of accepted Eastern Catholic theology, but not part of Roman Catholic doctrine.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Assumption: Mary was taken bodily into heaven either at, or before, her death.
The acceptance of these Marian doctrines by Roman Catholics and other Christians can be summarized as follows:<ref name="protestantencyclopedia">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Jackson, Gregory Lee.Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison. 1993 Template:ISBN p. 254</ref><ref>Miravalle, Mark. Introduction to Mary. 1993 Queenship Publishing Template:ISBN p. 51</ref>
| Doctrine | Church action | Accepted by | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virgin birth of Jesus | First Council of Nicaea, 325 | Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrians, Anglicans, Baptists, mainline Protestants | ||
| Mother of God | First Council of Ephesus, 431 | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref> | |
| Perpetual Virginity | Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, 553Template:PbSmalcald Articles, 1537 | Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrians, some Anglicans, some Lutherans (Martin Luther) | ||
| Immaculate Conception | lang}} encyclicalTemplate:PbPope Pius IX, 1854 | citation | CitationClass=web
}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |
CitationClass=web
}}</ref> some Anglicans, some Lutherans (early Martin Luther) |
| Assumption of Mary | lang}} encyclicalTemplate:PbPope Pius XII, 1950 | Catholics, Eastern and Oriental Orthodox (only following her natural death), some Anglicans, some Lutherans |
The title "Mother of God" (Template:Transliteration) for Mary was confirmed by the First Council of Ephesus, held at the Church of Mary in 431. The Council decreed that Mary is the Mother of God because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human.<ref name="ccel.org"/> This doctrine is widely accepted by Christians in general, and the term "Mother of God" had already been used within the oldest known prayer to Mary, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which dates to around 250 AD.<ref>Miravalle, Mark Introduction to Mary, 1993, Template:ISBN, pp. 44–46</ref>
The Virgin birth of Jesus was an almost universally held belief among Christians from the 2nd until the 19th century.<ref name="britannica">"Virgin Birth Template:Webarchive" britannica.com. Retrieved 22 October 2007.</ref> It is included in the two most widely used Christian creeds, which state that Jesus "was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary" (the Nicene Creed, in what is now its familiar form)<ref>Translation by the ecumenical English Language Liturgical Consultation, given on p. 17 of Praying Together, a literal translation of the original Template:Webarchive, "σαρκωθέντα ἐκ Πνεύματος Ἁγίου καὶ Μαρίας τῆς Παρθένου", accessed 11 September 2014</ref> and the Apostles' Creed. The Gospel of Matthew describes Mary as a virgin who fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14,<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> The authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke consider Jesus' conception not the result of intercourse, and assert that Mary had "no relations with man" before Jesus' birth.<ref>Template:Bibleverse; Template:Bibleverse; Template:Bibleverse</ref> This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not through intercourse with Joseph or anyone else.<ref name="Miravalle56">Miravalle, Mark Introduction to Mary, 1993, Template:ISBN, pp. 56–64</ref>
The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary relate to her death and bodily assumption to heaven. Roman Catholic Church has dogmatically defined the doctrine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 by Pope Pius XII in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Whether Mary died or not is not defined dogmatically, however, although a reference to the death of Mary is made in {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is believed, and celebrated with her Dormition, where they believe she died.
Catholics believe in the Immaculate Conception of Mary, as proclaimed {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} by Pope Pius IX in 1854, namely that she was filled with grace from the very moment of her conception in her mother's womb and preserved from the stain of original sin. The Latin Church has a liturgical feast by that name, kept on 8 December.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Orthodox Christians reject the Immaculate Conception dogma principally because their understanding of ancestral sin (the Greek term corresponding to the Latin "original sin") differs from the Augustinian interpretation and that of the Catholic Church.<ref>Ware, Timothy. The Orthodox Church (Penguin Books, 1963, Template:ISBN), pp. 263–264.</ref>
The Perpetual Virginity of Mary asserts Mary's real and perpetual virginity even in the act of giving birth to the Son of God made Man. The term Ever-Virgin (Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is applied in this case, stating that Mary remained a virgin for the remainder of her life, making Jesus her biological and only son, whose conception and birth are held to be miraculous.<ref name="Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, Erwin, et al. The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 2003, Template:ISBN, pp. 403–409.</ref><ref name="Miravalle56" /><ref>Template:Cite CCC.</ref> The Orthodox Churches hold the position articulated in the Protoevangelium of James that Jesus' brothers and sisters were Joseph's children from a marriage prior to that of Mary, which had left him widowed. Roman Catholic teaching follows the Latin father Jerome in considering them Jesus' cousins.
Eastern OrthodoxEdit
Eastern Orthodox Christianity includes a large number of traditions regarding the Ever-Virgin Mary, the Template:Transliteration.<ref name="McNally168">McNally, Terrence, What Every Catholic Should Know about Mary Template:ISBN pp. 168–169</ref> The Orthodox believe that she was and remained a virgin before and after Christ's birth.<ref name=Fairbairn /> The Template:Transliteration (hymns to the Theotokos) are an essential part of the Divine Services in the Eastern Church and their positioning within the liturgical sequence effectively places the Template:Transliteration in the most prominent place after Christ.<ref name="Dragas">Ecclesiasticus II: Orthodox Icons, Saints, Feasts and Prayer by George Dion Dragas 2005 Template:ISBN pp. 81–83</ref> Within the Orthodox tradition, the order of the saints begins with: the Template:Transliteration, Angels, Prophets, Apostles, Fathers and Martyrs, giving the Virgin Mary precedence over the angels. She is also proclaimed as the "Lady of the Angels".<ref name="Dragas" />
The views of the Church Fathers still play an important role in the shaping of Orthodox Marian perspective. However, the Orthodox views on Mary are mostly doxological, rather than academic: they are expressed in hymns, praise, liturgical poetry, and the veneration of icons. One of the most loved Orthodox Akathists (standing hymns) is devoted to Mary and it is often simply called the Akathist Hymn.<ref>The Everything Mary Book by Jenny Schroedel 2006 Template:ISBN p. 90</ref> Five of the twelve Great Feasts in Orthodoxy are dedicated to Mary.<ref name="Fairbairn" /> The Sunday of Orthodoxy directly links the Virgin Mary's identity as Mother of God with icon veneration.<ref>Vasilaka, Maria Images of the Mother of God: perceptions of the Theotokos in Byzantium 2005 Template:ISBN p. 97</ref> A number of Orthodox feasts are connected with the miraculous icons of the Template:Transliteration.<ref name="Dragas" />
The Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created beings", although not divine.<ref name="Bulgakov" /> As such, the designation of Saint to Mary as Saint Mary is not appropriate.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Orthodox does not venerate Mary as conceived immaculate. Gregory of Nazianzus, Archbishop of Constantinople in the 4th century AD, speaking on the Nativity of Jesus Christ argues that "Conceived by the Virgin, who first in body and soul was purified by the Holy Ghost, He came forth as God with that which He had assumed, One Person in two Natures, Flesh and Spirit, of which the latter defined the former."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Orthodox celebrate the Dormition of the Theotokos, rather than Assumption.<ref name="Fairbairn" />
The Protoevangelium of James, an extra-canonical book, has been the source of many Orthodox beliefs on Mary. The account of Mary's life presented includes her consecration as a virgin at the temple at age three. The high priest Zachariah blessed Mary and informed her that God had magnified her name among many generations. Zachariah placed Mary on the third step of the altar, whereby God gave her grace. While in the temple, Mary was miraculously fed by an angel, until she was 12 years old. At that point, an angel told Zachariah to betroth Mary to a widower in Israel, who would be indicated. This story provides the theme of many hymns for the Feast of Presentation of Mary, and icons of the feast depict the story.<ref name="Wybrew">Wybrew, Hugh Orthodox feasts of Jesus Christ & the Virgin Mary: liturgical texts 2000 Template:ISBN pp. 37–46</ref> The Orthodox believe that Mary was instrumental in the growth of Christianity during the life of Jesus, and after his Crucifixion, and Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov has written: "The Virgin Mary is the centre, invisible, but real, of the Apostolic Church."
Theologians from the Orthodox tradition have made prominent contributions to the development of Marian thought and devotion. John Damascene (Template:Circa) was one of the greatest Orthodox theologians. Among other Marian writings, he proclaimed the essential nature of Mary's heavenly Assumption or Dormition and her meditative role.
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It was necessary that the body of the one who preserved her virginity intact in giving birth should also be kept incorrupt after death. It was necessary that she, who carried the Creator in her womb when he was a baby, should dwell among the tabernacles of heaven.<ref>Damascene, John. Homily 2 on the Dormition 14; p. 96, 741 B</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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From her we have harvested the grape of life; from her we have cultivated the seed of immortality. For our sake she became Mediatrix of all blessings; in her God became man, and man became God.<ref>Damascene, John. Homily 2 on the Dormition 16; p. 96, 744 D</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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More recently, Sergei Bulgakov expressed the Orthodox sentiments towards Mary as follows:<ref name="Bulgakov" />
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
Mary is not merely the instrument, but the direct positive condition of the Incarnation, its human aspect. Christ could not have been incarnate by some mechanical process, violating human nature. It was necessary for that nature itself to say for itself, by the mouth of the most pure human being: "Behold the handmaid of the Lord, be it unto me according to Thy word."{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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ProtestantEdit
Protestants in general reject the veneration and invocation of the Saints.<ref name=protestantencyclopedia/>Template:Rp They share the belief that Mary is the mother of Jesus and "blessed among women" (Luke 1:42)<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> but they generally do not agree that Mary is to be venerated. She is considered to be an outstanding example of a life dedicated to God.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> As such, they tend not to accept certain church doctrines such as her being preserved from sin.<ref>White, James (1998). Mary – Another Redeemer?. Bethany House Publishers.</ref> Theologian Karl Barth wrote that "the heresy of the Catholic Church is its Mariology".<ref name="Barth Karl pages 143-144">Template:Citation</ref>
Some early Protestants venerated Mary. Martin Luther wrote that: "Mary is full of grace, proclaimed to be entirely without sin. God's grace fills her with everything good and makes her devoid of all evil."<ref>Lehmann, H., ed. Luther's Works, American edition, vol. 43, p. 40, Fortress, 1968.</ref> However, as of 1532, Luther stopped celebrating the feast of the Assumption of Mary and also discontinued his support of the Immaculate Conception.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> John Calvin remarked, "It cannot be denied that God in choosing and destining Mary to be the Mother of his Son, granted her the highest honor."Template:Efn However, Calvin firmly rejected the notion that Mary can intercede between Christ and man.<ref>Template:Citation.</ref>
Although Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli honored Mary as the Mother of Christ in the 16th century, they did so less than Martin Luther.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Thus the idea of respect and high honor for Mary was not rejected by the first Protestants; however, they came to criticize the Roman Catholics for venerating Mary. Following the Council of Trent in the 16th century, as Marian veneration became associated with Catholics, Protestant interest in Mary decreased. During the Age of the Enlightenment, any residual interest in Mary within Protestant churches almost disappeared, although Anglicans and Lutherans continued to honor her.<ref name=protestantencyclopedia />
In the 20th century, some Protestants reacted in opposition to the Catholic dogma of the Assumption of Mary.<ref>Williams, Paul (2007). pp. 238, 251, quote: "Where Anglican writers discuss the doctrine of the Assumption, it is either rejected or held to be of the adiaphora."</ref> The tone of the Second Vatican Council began to mend the ecumenical differences, and Protestants began to show interest in Marian themes.Template:Citation needed In 1997 and 1998, ecumenical dialogues between Catholics and Protestants took place, but, to date, the majority of Protestants disagree with Marian veneration and some view it as a challenge to the authority of Scripture.<ref name=protestantencyclopedia />Template:Better source needed
AnglicanEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The various churches that form the Anglican Communion and the Continuing Anglican movement have different views on Marian doctrines and venerative practices given that there is no single church with universal authority within the Communion and that the mother church (the Church of England) understands itself to be both "Catholic" and "Reformed".<ref>Milton, Anthony Catholic and Reformed 2002 Template:ISBN p. 5</ref> Thus unlike the Protestant churches at large, the Anglican Communion includes segments which still retain some veneration of Mary.<ref name=Schroedel81 >Schroedel, Jenny The Everything Mary Book, 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 81–85</ref>
Mary's special position within God's purpose of salvation as "God-bearer" is recognized in a number of ways by some Anglican Christians.<ref name=Braaten >Braaten, Carl, et al. Mary, Mother of God 2004 Template:ISBN p. 13</ref> All the member churches of the Anglican Communion affirm in the historic creeds that Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary, and celebrates the feast days of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple. This feast is called in older prayer books the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary on 2 February. The Annunciation of our Lord to the Blessed Virgin on 25 March was from before the time of Bede until the 18th century New Year's Day in England. The Annunciation is called the "Annunciation of our Lady" in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. Anglicans also celebrate in the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin on 31 May, though in some provinces the traditional date of 2 July is kept. The feast of the St. Mary the Virgin is observed on the traditional day of the Assumption, 15 August. The Nativity of the Blessed Virgin is kept on 8 September.<ref name=Schroedel81 />
The Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary is kept in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, on 8 December. In certain Anglo-Catholic parishes this feast is called the Immaculate Conception. Again, the Assumption of Mary is believed in by most Anglo-Catholics, but is considered a pious opinion by moderate Anglicans. Protestant-minded Anglicans reject the celebration of these feasts.<ref name=Schroedel81 />
Prayers and venerative practices vary greatly. For instance, as of the 19th century, following the Oxford Movement, Anglo-Catholics frequently pray the Rosary, the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and other litanies and anthems of Mary reminiscent of Catholic practices.<ref>Burnham, Andrew A Pocket Manual of Anglo-Catholic Devotion 2004 Template:ISBN pp. 1, 266, 310, 330</ref> Conversely, low church Anglicans rarely invoke the Blessed Virgin except in certain hymns, such as the second stanza of Ye Watchers and Ye Holy Ones.<ref name=Braaten /><ref>Duckworth, Penelope, Mary: The Imagination of Her Heart 2004 Template:ISBN pp. 3–5</ref>
The Anglican Society of Mary was formed in 1931 and maintains chapters in many countries. The purpose of the society is to foster devotion to Mary among Anglicans.<ref name=Schroedel81 /><ref>Church of England yearbook: Volume 123 2006 Template:ISBN p. 315</ref> High church Anglicans espouse doctrines that are closer to Roman Catholics, and retain veneration for Mary, such as Anglican pilgrimages to Our Lady of Lourdes, which have taken place since 1963, and pilgrimages to Our Lady of Walsingham, which have taken place for hundreds of years.<ref>Perrier, Jacques, Lourdes Today and Tomorrow 2008 Template:ISBN p. 56</ref>
Historically, there has been enough common ground between Roman Catholics and Anglicans on Marian issues that in 2005, a joint statement called Mary: grace and hope in Christ was produced through ecumenical meetings of Anglicans and Roman Catholic theologians. This document, informally known as the "Seattle Statement", is not formally endorsed by either the Catholic Church or the Anglican Communion, but is viewed by its authors as the beginning of a joint understanding of Mary.<ref name="Schroedel81" /><ref>Mary: grace and hope in Christ: the Seattle statement of the Anglican-Roman Catholics by the Anglican/Roman Catholic International Group 2006 Template:ISBN pp. 7–10</ref>
LutheranEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
Despite Martin Luther's harsh polemics against his Roman Catholic opponents over issues concerning Mary and the saints, theologians appear to agree that Luther adhered to the Marian decrees of the ecumenical councils and dogmas of the church. He held fast to the belief that Mary was a perpetual virgin and Mother of God.<ref>Bäumer, Remigius. Marienlexikon Gesamtausgabe, Leo Scheffczyk, ed., (Regensburg: Institutum Marianum, 1994), 190.</ref><ref name="Schroedel">Template:Citation</ref> Special attention is given to the assertion that Luther, some 300 years before the dogmatization of the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854, was a firm adherent of that view.Template:Citation needed Others maintain that Luther in later years changed his position on the Immaculate Conception, which, at that time was undefined in the church, maintaining however the sinlessness of Mary throughout her life.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Bäumer, 191</ref> For Luther, early in his life, the Assumption of Mary was an understood fact, although he later stated that the Bible did not say anything about it and stopped celebrating its feast. Important to him was the belief that Mary and the saints do live on after death.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Bäumer, 190.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "Throughout his career as a priest-professor-reformer, Luther preached, taught, and argued about the veneration of Mary with a verbosity that ranged from childlike piety to sophisticated polemics. His views are intimately linked to his Christocentric theology and its consequences for liturgy and piety."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Luther, while revering Mary, came to criticize the "Papists" for blurring the line between high admiration of the grace of God wherever it is seen in a human being, and religious service given to another creature. He considered the Roman Catholic practice of celebrating saints' days and making intercessory requests addressed especially to Mary and other departed saints to be idolatry.<ref>Luther's Works, 47, pp. 45f.</ref><ref>Lutherans and Catholics in Dialogue VIII, p. 29.</ref> His final thoughts on Marian devotion and veneration are preserved in a sermon preached at Wittenberg only a month before his death:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
Therefore, when we preach faith, that we should worship nothing but God alone, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, as we say in the Creed: 'I believe in God the Father almighty and in Jesus Christ,' then we are remaining in the temple at Jerusalem. Again,'This is my beloved Son; listen to him.' 'You will find him in a manger'. He alone does it. But reason says the opposite:
What, us? Are we to worship only Christ? Indeed, shouldn't we also honor the holy mother of Christ? She is the woman who bruised the head of the serpent. Hear us, Mary, for thy Son so honors thee that he can refuse thee nothing. Here Bernard went too far in his Homilies on the Gospel: Missus est Angelus.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> God has commanded that we should honor the parents; therefore I will call upon Mary. She will intercede for me with the Son, and the Son with the Father, who will listen to the Son. So you have the picture of God as angry and Christ as judge; Mary shows to Christ her breast and Christ shows his wounds to the wrathful Father. That's the kind of thing this comely bride, the wisdom of reason cooks up: Mary is the mother of Christ, surely Christ will listen to her; Christ is a stern judge, therefore I will call upon St. George and St. Christopher. No, we have been by God's command baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, just as the Jews were circumcised.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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Certain Lutheran churches such as the Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church continue to venerate Mary and the saints in the same manner that Roman Catholics do, and hold all Marian dogmas as part of their faith.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
MethodistEdit
Template:FurtherTemplate:Anchor Methodists do not have any additional teachings on the Virgin Mary except from what is mentioned in Scripture and the ecumenical Creeds. As such, Methodists generally accept the doctrine of the virgin birth, but reject the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> John Wesley, the principal founder of the Methodist movement within the Church of England, believed that Mary "continued a pure and unspotted virgin", thus upholding the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref name="davidmacd.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Contemporary Methodism holds that Mary was a virgin before, during, and immediately after the birth of Christ.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In addition, some Methodists also hold the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary as a pious opinion.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
NontrinitarianEdit
Nontrinitarians, such as Unitarians, Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Latter Day Saints<ref>Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America 2006 p. 73 Eugene V. Gallagher, W. Michael Ashcraft: "Jehovah's Witnesses pray to God in the name of Jesus, but insist that the Bible never identifies Christ as an eternal ... Jehovah God caused an ovum, or egg cell, in Mary's womb to become fertile, accomplishing this by the transferral of."</ref> also acknowledge Mary as the biological mother of Jesus Christ, but most reject any immaculate conception and do not recognize Marian titles such as "Mother of God". The Latter Day Saint movement's view affirms the virgin birth of Jesus<ref>Template:Citation</ref> and Christ's divinity, but only as a separate being than God the Father. The Book of Mormon refers to Mary by name in prophecies and describes her as "most beautiful and fair above all other virgins"<ref>Template:Lds</ref> and as a "precious and chosen vessel."<ref>Template:Lds</ref><ref name="EOM">Template:Citation</ref>
In nontrinitarian groups that are also Christian mortalists, Mary is not seen as an intercessor between humankind and Jesus, whom mortalists would consider "asleep", awaiting resurrection.<ref>Christian mortalism from Tyndale to Milton Norman T. Burns – 1972</ref>
JewishEdit
The issue of the parentage of Jesus in the Talmud also affects Jewish views of Mary. However, the Talmud does not mention Mary by name, and is considerate rather than only polemic.<ref>The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman culture: Volume 3 – p. 369 Peter Schäfer, Catherine Hezser – 2002 The Mother of the Messiah in the Talmud Yerushalmi and Sefer Zerubbabel by Martha Himmelfarb "Through the centuries the Virgin Mary has played a central role in Christian piety. Unlike so many aspects of Christianity, veneration of the…"</ref><ref>Peter Schäfer, Mirror of His beauty: feminine images of God from the Bible to the early Kabbalah. 2002, p. 233: "On the one hand, it mockingly disapproves of the idea of the mother of God; on the other hand, it treats Mary considerately and by no means only polemically. The talmudic and post-talmudic discussions about the Virgin Mary are classic…"</ref> The story about Panthera is also found in the Template:Transliteration, the literary origins of which can not be traced with any certainty, and given that it is unlikely to go before the 4th century, the time is too late to include authentic remembrances of Jesus.<ref>Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence WmB Eerdmans Publishing. Template:ISBN pp. 122, 127</ref> The Blackwell Companion to Jesus states that the Template:Transliteration has no historical facts and was perhaps created as a tool for warding off conversions to Christianity.<ref>Michael J. Cook Jewish Perspectives on Jesus Chapter 14 in "The Blackwell Companion to Jesus" edited by Delbert Burkett 2011 Template:ISBN</ref> The tales from the Template:Transliteration did impart a negative picture of Mary to ordinary Jewish readers.<ref name="Remensnyder2014" /> The circulation of the Template:Transliteration was widespread among European and Middle Eastern Jewish communities since the 9th century.<ref name="Voorst2000">Template:Cite book</ref> The name Panthera may be a distortion of the term Template:Transliteration ("virgin") and Raymond E. Brown considers the story of Panthera a fanciful explanation of the birth of Jesus that includes very little historical evidence.<ref>Mary in the New Testament by Raymond Edward Brown, et al. 1978 Template:ISBN p. 262</ref> Robert Van Voorst states that because Template:Transliteration is a medieval document with its lack of a fixed form and orientation towards a popular audience, it is "most unlikely" to have reliable historical information.<ref>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence, WmB Eerdmans Publishing. Template:ISBN, p. 128.</ref> Stacks of the copies of the Talmud were burnt upon a court order after the 1240 Disputation for allegedly containing material defaming the character of Mary.<ref name="Remensnyder2014">Template:Cite book</ref>
IslamicEdit
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The Virgin Mary holds a singularly exalted place in Islam, and she is considered by the Quran to have been the greatest woman in the history of humankind. The Islamic scripture recounts the Divine Promise given to Mary as being: ""O Mary! Surely Allah has selected you, purified you, and chosen you over all women of the world" (Template:Qref).
Mary is often referred to by Muslims by the honorific title Template:Transliteration ("Our Lady"). She is mentioned in the Quran as the daughter of Imran.<ref name="Glasse">The new encyclopedia of Islam by Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith 2003 Template:ISBN p. 296 sayyidatuna Template:Webarchive</ref>
Moreover, Mary is the only woman named in the Quran and she is mentioned or referred to in the scripture a total of 50 times.Template:Efn Mary holds a singularly distinguished and honored position among women in the Quran. A Template:Transliteration (chapter) in the Quran is titled "Maryam" (Mary), the only Template:Transliteration in the Quran named after a woman, in which the story of Mary (Maryam) and Jesus (Isa) is recounted according to the view of Jesus in Islam.<ref name="Jestice" />
BirthEdit
In a narration of hadith from Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, he mentions that Allah revealed to Imran, "I will grant you a boy, blessed, one who will cure the blind and the leper and one who will raise the dead by My permission. And I will send him as an apostle to the Children of Israel." Then Imran related the story to his wife, Hannah, the mother of Mary. When she became pregnant, she conceived it was a boy, but when she gave birth to a girl, she stated "Oh my Lord! Verily I have delivered a female, and the male is not like the female, for a girl will not be a prophet," to which Allah replies in the Quran, "Allah knows better what has been delivered" (3:36). When Allah bestowed Jesus to Mary, he fulfilled his promise to Imran.<ref name = Qaim2007>Template:Cite book</ref>
MotherhoodEdit
Mary was declared (uniquely along with Jesus) to be a "Sign of God" to humanity;<ref>Template:Qref</ref> as one who "guarded her chastity";<ref name="qref|66|12|b=y"/> an "obedient one";<ref name="qref|66|12|b=y"/> and dedicated by her mother to Allah whilst still in the womb;<ref name="qref|3|36|b=y"/> uniquely (amongst women) "Accepted into service by God";<ref name="qref|3|37|b=y">Template:Qref</ref> cared for by (one of the prophets as per Islam) Zakariya (Zacharias);<ref name="qref|3|37|b=y"/> that in her childhood she resided in the Temple and uniquely had access to Al-Mihrab (understood to be the Holy of Holies), and was provided with heavenly "provisions" by God.<ref name="qref|3|37|b=y"/><ref name="Glasse" />
Mary is also called a "Chosen One";<ref name="qref|3|42|b=y">Template:Qref</ref> a "Purified One";<ref name="qref|3|42|b=y"/> a "Truthful one";<ref>Template:Qref</ref> her child conceived through "a Word from God";<ref>Template:Qref</ref> and "chosen you above the women of the worlds(the material and heavenly worlds)".<ref name="qref|3|42|b=y"/>
The Quran relates detailed narrative accounts of Maryam (Mary) in two places, Template:Qref and Template:Qref. These state beliefs in both the Immaculate Conception of Mary and the virgin birth of Jesus.<ref>Jomier, Jacques. The Bible and the Qur'an. 2002 Template:ISBN p. 133</ref><ref>Nazir-Ali, Michael. Islam, a Christian perspective. 1984 Template:ISBN p. 110</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The account given in Template:Qref is nearly identical with that in the Gospel according to Luke, and both of these (Luke, Sura 19) begin with an account of the visitation of an angel upon Zakariya (Zecharias) and "Good News of the birth of Yahya (John)", followed by the account of the annunciation. It mentions how Mary was informed by an angel that she would become the mother of Jesus through the actions of God alone.<ref>Jackson, Montell. Islam Revealed. 2003 Template:ISBN p. 73</ref>
In the Islamic tradition, Mary and Jesus were the only children who could not be touched by Satan at the moment of their birth, for God imposed a veil between them and Satan.<ref>Template:Qref</ref><ref>Rodwell, J. M. The Koran. 2009, Template:ISBN, p. 505.</ref> According to the author Shabbir Akhtar, the Islamic perspective on Mary's Immaculate Conception is compatible with the Catholic doctrine of the same topic.
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"O People of the Book! Do not go to extremes regarding your faith; say nothing about Allah except the truth. The Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, was no more than a messenger of Allah and the fulfilment of His Word through Mary and a spirit ˹created by a command˺ from Him. So believe in Allah and His messengers and do not say, "Trinity." Stop!—for your own good. Allah is only One God. Glory be to Him! He is far above having a son! To Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth. And Allah is sufficient as a Trustee of Affairs.{{#if:Template:Qref<ref>Akhtar, Shabbir.The Quran and the secular mind: a philosophy of Islam. 2007 p. 352</ref><ref>Glassé, Cyril, Huston Smith. The new encyclopedia of Islam. 2003 Template:ISBN p. 240</ref>|{{#if:|}}
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The Quran says that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth. The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus is provided in Suras 3 and 19 of the Quran, where it is written that God sent an angel to announce that she could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being a virgin.<ref>Sarker, Abraham.Understand My Muslim People. 2004 Template:ISBN p. 260 no preview Template:Webarchive</ref>
Druze FaithEdit
The Druze faith holds the Virgin Mary, known as Sayyida Maryam, in high regard.<ref name="Makdisi2000">Template:Cite book</ref> Although the Druze religion is distinct from mainstream Islam and Christianity, it incorporates elements from both and honors many of their figures, including the Virgin Mary.<ref name="Makdisi2000" /> The Druze revere Mary as a holy and pure figure, embodying virtue and piety.<ref name="Dana47">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Makdisi2000" /> She is respected not only for her role as the mother of Messiah Jesus but also for her spiritual purity and dedication to God.<ref name="Dana47"/><ref name="Makdisi2000" /> In regions where Druze and Christians coexist, such as parts of Lebanon, Syria and Israel, the veneration of Mary often reflects a blend of traditions.<ref name="Cambridge Scholars Publishing">Template:Cite book</ref> Shared pilgrimage sites and mutual respect for places like the Church of Saidet et Tallé in Deir el Qamar,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the Our Lady of Lebanon shrine in Harrisa, the Our Lady of Saidnaya Monastery in Saidnaya, and the Stella Maris Monastery in Haifa exemplify this.<ref name="Cambridge Scholars Publishing"/>
Historical records and writings by authors like Pierre-Marie Martin and Glenn Bowman show that Druze leaders and community members have historically shown deep reverence for Marian sites.<ref name="Glenn2012" /> They often sought her intercession before battles or during times of need, demonstrating a cultural and spiritual integration of Marian veneration into their religious practices.<ref name="Glenn2012" />
Bahá'í FaithEdit
The Bahá'í Faith venerates Mary as the mother of Jesus. The Template:Transliteration, the primary theological work of the Bahá'í religion, describes Mary as "that most beauteous countenance," and "that veiled and immortal Countenance." The Bahá'í writings claim Jesus Christ was "conceived of the Holy Ghost"<ref>The Kitáb-i-Íqán Part One Template:Webarchive. Bahá'í Reference Library. Retrieved 10 September 2014.</ref> and assert that in the Bahá'í Faith "the reality of the mystery of the Immaculacy of the Virgin Mary is confessed."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Biblical scholarsEdit
The statement found in Matthew 1:25 that Joseph did not have sexual relations with Mary before she gave birth to Jesus has been debated among scholars, with some saying that she did not remain a virgin and some saying that she was a perpetual virgin.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other scholars contend that the Greek word Template:Transliteration ("until") denotes a state up to a point, but does not mean that the state ended after that point, and that Matthew 1:25 does not confirm or deny the virginity of Mary after the birth of Jesus.<ref>McNally, Terrence, What Every Catholic Should Know about Mary Template:ISBN p. 95</ref><ref>Cradle of redeeming love by John Saward 2002 Ignatius Press Template:ISBN p. 17</ref><ref>Mary in the New Testament by Raymond Edward Brown 1978 Template:ISBN p. 86</ref> According to Biblical scholar Bart Ehrman, the Hebrew word Template:Transliteration, meaning young woman of childbearing age, was translated into Greek as Template:Transliteration, which often, though not always, refers to a young woman who has never had sex. In Isaiah 7:14, it is commonly believed by Christians to be the prophecy of the Virgin Mary referred to in Matthew 1:23.<ref>Ehrman, Bart Did Jesus Exist p. 294</ref> While Matthew and Luke give differing versions of the virgin birth, John quotes the uninitiated Philip and the disbelieving Jews gathered at Galilee referring to Joseph as Jesus' father.<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref><ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref><ref name="Ehrman2008">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Ehrman1999">Template:Cite book</ref>
Other biblical verses have also been debated; for example, the reference made by Paul the Apostle that Jesus was made "of the seed of David according to the flesh" (Romans 1:3)<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> meaning that he was a descendant of David through Joseph.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Pre-Christian RomeEdit
From the early stages of Christianity, belief in the virginity of Mary and the virgin conception of Jesus, as stated in the gospels, holy and supernatural, was used by detractors, both political and religious, as a topic for discussions, debates, and writings, specifically aimed to challenge the divinity of Jesus and thus Christians and Christianity alike.<ref>Bennett, Clinton, In search of Jesus 2001 Template:ISBN pp. 165–170</ref> In the 2nd century, as part of his anti-Christian polemic The True Word, the pagan philosopher Celsus contended that Jesus was actually the illegitimate son of a Roman soldier named Panthera.<ref>Also see: Schaberg, Jane. Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28), Template:ISBN.</ref> The Church Father Origen dismissed this assertion as a complete fabrication in his apologetic treatise Against Celsus.<ref>Contra Celsum by Origen, Henry Chadwick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953) reprint 1980 Template:ISBN p. 32</ref> How far Celsus sourced his view from Jewish sources remains a subject of discussion.<ref>John Patrick The Apology of Origen in Reply to Celsus 1892 reprint 2009 Template:ISBN pp. 22–24</ref>
Christian devotionsEdit
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HistoryEdit
2nd centuryEdit
Justin Martyr was among the first to draw a parallel between Eve and Mary. This derives from his comparison of Adam and Jesus. In his Dialogue with Trypho, written sometime between 155 and 167,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> he explains:
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He became man by the Virgin, in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin. For Eve, who was a virgin and undefiled, having conceived the word of the serpent, brought forth disobedience and death. But the Virgin Mary received faith and joy, when the angel Gabriel announced the good tidings to her that the Spirit of the Lord would come upon her, and the power of the Highest would overshadow her: wherefore also the Holy Thing begotten of her is the Son of God; and she replied, 'Be it unto me according to thy word." And by her has He been born, to whom we have proved so many scriptures refer, and by whom God destroys both the serpent and those angels and men who are like him; but works deliverance from death to those who repent of their wickedness and believe upon Him.<ref>Template:Ws</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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It is possible that the teaching of Mary as the New Eve was part of the apostolic tradition rather than merely Justin Martyr's own creation, according to Serafim Seppälä.<ref>Seppälä, Serafim: Elämän äiti: Neitsyt Maria varhaiskristillisessä teologiassa, p. 60. Helsinki: Maahenki, 2010. Template:ISBN</ref> Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, also takes up this parallel, in Against Heresies, written about the year 182:<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
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In accordance with this design, Mary the Virgin is found obedient, saying, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it unto me according to your word." Luke 1:38 But Eve was disobedient; for she did not obey when as yet she was a virgin. ... having become disobedient, was made the cause of death, both to herself and to the entire human race; so also did Mary, having a man betrothed [to her], and being nevertheless a virgin, by yielding obedience, become the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race. And on this account does the law term a woman betrothed to a man, the wife of him who had betrothed her, although she was as yet a virgin; thus indicating the back-reference from Mary to Eve,...For the Lord, having been born "the First-begotten of the dead," Revelation 1:5 and receiving into His bosom the ancient fathers, has regenerated them into the life of God, He having been made Himself the beginning of those that live, as Adam became the beginning of those who die. 1 Corinthians 15:20–22 Wherefore also Luke, commencing the genealogy with the Lord, carried it back to Adam, indicating that it was He who regenerated them into the Gospel of life, and not they Him. And thus also it was that the knot of Eve's disobedience was loosed by the obedience of Mary. For what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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During the second century, the Gospel of James was also written. According to Stephen J. Shoemaker, "its interest in Mary as a figure in her own right and its reverence for her sacred purity mark the beginnings of Marian piety within early Christianity".<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J.: Mary in Early Christian Faith and Devotion, pp. 229–230. Yale University Press, 2016. Template:ISBN.</ref>
3rd to 5th centuriesEdit
During the Age of Martyrs and at the latest in the fourth century, the majority of the most essential ideas of Marian devotion already appeared in some form – in the writings of the Church Fathers, apocrypha and visual arts. The lack of sources makes it unclear whether the devotion to Mary played a role in liturgical use during the first centuries of Christianity.<ref>Seppälä, Serafim: Elämän äiti: Neitsyt Maria varhaiskristillisessä teologiassa, p. 368. Helsinki: Maahenki, 2010. Template:ISBN</ref> In the 4th century, Marian devotion in a liturgical context becomes evident.<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J.: Mary in Early Christian Faith and Devotion, p. 202, 236. Yale University Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0-300-21953-1.</ref>
The earliest known Marian prayer (the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, or Beneath Thy Protection) is from the 3rd century (perhaps 270), and its text was rediscovered in 1917 on a papyrus in Egypt.<ref>Mark Miravalle, Raymond L. Burke; Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons, 2008, Template:ISBN, p. 178.</ref><ref>The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 Template:ISBN p. 406</ref> According to some sources, Theonas of Alexandria consecrated one of the first holy places dedicated to Mary during the late 3rd century. An even earlier place has been found in Nazareth, dated to the previous century by some scholars.<ref>Seppälä, Serafim: Elämän äiti: Neitsyt Maria varhaiskristillisessä teologiassa, p. 85. Helsinki: Maahenki, 2010.</ref> Following the Edict of Milan in 313, by the 5th century artistic images of Mary began to appear in public and larger churches were being dedicated to Mary, such as the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Osborne, John L. "Early Medieval Painting in San Clemente, Rome: The Madonna and Child in the Niche" Gesta 20.2 (1981:299–310) and (note 9) referencing T. Klauser, Rom under der Kult des Gottesmutter Maria, Jahrbuch für der Antike und Christentum 15 (1972:120–135).</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> At the Council of Ephesus in 431, Mary was officially declared the Theotokos, meaning "God-bearer"<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> or "Mother of God". The term had possibly been used for centuries<ref>Seppälä, Serafim: Elämän äiti: Neitsyt Maria varhaiskristillisessä teologiassa, p. 82–83. Maahenki, 2010. Template:ISBN</ref> or at least since the early 300s, when it seems to have already been in established use.<ref>Seppälä, Serafim: Elämän äiti: Neitsyt Maria varhaiskristillisessä teologiassa, p. 114. Maahenki, 2010. Template:ISBN</ref>
The Council of Ephesus was long thought to have been held at a church in Ephesus which had been dedicated to Mary about a hundred years before.<ref>Baldovin, John and Johnson, Maxwell, Between memory and hope: readings on the liturgical year 2001 Template:ISBN p. 386</ref><ref>Dalmais, Irénée et al. The Church at Prayer: The liturgy and time 1985 Template:ISBN p. 130</ref><ref>McNally, Terrence, What Every Catholic Should Know about Mary Template:ISBN p. 186</ref> Though, recent archeological surveys indicate that St. Mary's Church in Ephesus did not exist at the time of the Council or, at least, the building was not dedicated to Mary before 500.<ref>Stefan Karwiese, The Church of Holy Mary in Ephesos, 2008 (phase 3).</ref> The Church of the Seat of Mary in Judea was built shortly after the introduction of Marian liturgy at the council of Ephesus, in 456, by a widow named Ikelia.<ref name="Initial">Template:Cite book</ref>
According to the 4th-century heresiologist Epiphanius of Salamis, the Virgin Mary was worshipped as a mother goddess in the Christian sect of Collyridianism, which was found throughout Arabia sometime during the 300s AD. Collyridianism had women performing priestly acts, and made bread offerings to the Virgin Mary. The group was condemned as heretical by the Roman Catholic Church and was preached against by Epiphanius of Salamis, who wrote about the group in his writings titled Panarion.<ref>Collyridianism – EWTN Template:Webarchive Retrieved 11 September 2014</ref>
ByzantiumEdit
During the era of the Byzantine Empire, Mary was venerated as the virginal Mother of God and as an intercessor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Ephesus is a cultic centre of Mary, the site of the first church dedicated to her and the rumoured place of her death. Ephesus was previously a centre for worship of Artemis, a virgin goddess; the Temple of Artemis there is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The cult of Mary was furthered by Queen Theodora in the 6th century.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to William E. Phipps, in the book Survivals of Roman Religion,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> "Gordon Laing argues convincingly that the worship of Artemis as both virgin and mother at the grand Ephesian temple contributed to the veneration of Mary."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Middle AgesEdit
The Middle Ages saw many legends about Mary, her parents, and even her grandparents.<ref>Toronto Star article – In December 2010, Catherine Lawless of the University of Limerick stated that by analyzing 15th century Florentine manuscripts, she had concluded that 'Ismeria' was the maternal grandmother of Mary. Toronto Star Dec 2010 Template:Webarchive Discovery News Template:Webarchive</ref> Mary's popularity increased dramatically from the 12th century,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> linked to the Roman Catholic Church's designation of Mary as Mediatrix.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Post-ReformationEdit
Over the centuries, devotion and veneration to Mary has varied greatly among Christian traditions. For instance, while Protestants show scant attention to Marian prayers or devotions, of all the saints whom the Orthodox venerate, the most honored is Mary, who is considered "more honorable than the Cherubim and more glorious than the Seraphim".<ref name=Fairbairn >Eastern Orthodoxy through Western eyes by Donald Fairbairn 2002 Template:ISBN pp. 99–101</ref>
Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote: "Love and veneration for the Virgin is the soul of Orthodox piety. A faith in Christ which does not include [...] His mother is another faith, another Christianity from that of the Orthodox Church."<ref name=Bulgakov >The Orthodox Church by Serge? Nikolaevich Bulgakov 1997 Template:ISBN p. 116</ref>
Although the Catholics and the Orthodox may honor and venerate Mary, they do not view her as divine, nor do they worship her. Roman Catholics view Mary as subordinate to Christ, but uniquely so, in that she is seen as above all other creatures.<ref>Miravalle, Mark. Introduction to Mary. 1993 Queenship Publishing Template:ISBN pp. 92–93</ref> Similarly, Bulgakov wrote that the Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created beings" and "ceaselessly pray for her intercession". However, she is not considered a "substitute for the One Mediator" who is Christ.<ref name=Bulgakov /> "Let Mary be in honor, but let worship be given to the Lord", he wrote.<ref>The Orthodox word, Volumes 12–13, 1976 p. 73</ref> Similarly, Catholics do not worship Mary as a divine being, but rather "hyper-venerate" her. In Roman Catholic theology, the term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is reserved for Marian veneration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} for the worship of God, and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} for the veneration of other saints and angels.<ref>Trigilio, John and Brighenti, Kenneth The Catholicism Answer Book 2007 Template:ISBN p. 58</ref> The definition of the three level hierarchy of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} goes back to the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.<ref>The History of the Christian Church by Philip Smith 2009 Template:ISBN p. 288</ref>
Devotions to artistic depictions of Mary vary among Christian traditions. There is a long tradition of Catholic Marian art and no image permeates Catholic art as does the image of Madonna and Child.<ref>The Celebration of Faith: The Virgin Mary by Alexander Schmemann 2001 Template:ISBN p. 11 Template:Webarchive</ref> The icon of the Virgin Template:Transliteration with Christ is, without doubt, the most venerated icon in the Orthodox Church.<ref>De Sherbinin, Julie Chekhov and Russian religious culture: the poetics of the Marian paradigm 1997 Template:ISBN p. 15 Template:Webarchive</ref> Both Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians venerate images and icons of Mary, given that the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 permitted their veneration with the understanding that those who venerate the image are venerating the reality of the person it represents,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and the 842 Synod of Constantinople confirming the same.<ref>Kilmartin, Edward. The Eucharist in the West 1998. Template:ISBN, p. 80.</ref> According to Orthodox piety and traditional practice, however, believers ought to pray before and venerate only flat, two-dimensional icons, and not three-dimensional statues.<ref>Ciaravino, Helene How to Pray 2001 Template:ISBN p. 118</ref>
The Anglican position towards Mary is in general more conciliatory than that of Protestants at large and in a book he wrote about praying with the icons of Mary, Rowan Williams, former archbishop of Canterbury, said: "It is not only that we cannot understand Mary without seeing her as pointing to Christ; we cannot understand Christ without seeing his attention to Mary."<ref name="Schroedel81" /><ref>Williams, Rowan Ponder these things: praying with icons of the Virgin 2002 Template:ISBN p. 7</ref>
On 4 September 1781, 11 families of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} arrived from the Gulf of California and established a city in the name of King Carlos III. The small town was named {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (after our Lady of the Angels), a city that today is known simply as Los Angeles. In an attempt to revive the custom of religious processions within the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, in September 2011 the Queen of Angels Foundation, and founder Mark Anchor Albert, inaugurated an annual Grand Marian Procession in the heart of Downtown Los Angeles' historic core. This yearly procession, held on the last Saturday of August and intended to coincide with the anniversary of the founding of the City of Los Angeles, begins at the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels and concludes at the parish of La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles which is part of the Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, better known as "La Placita".<ref>Catholic News Agency website, Marian procession to mark Los Angeles’ 235th birthday, article dated 18 August 2016</ref><ref>Angelus News website, This year’s Grand Marian Procession marks a time of celebration and a call for renewal in the Church, article by Tom Hoffarth dated 31 August 2018</ref>
FeastsEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The earliest feasts that relate to Mary grew out of the cycle of feasts that celebrated the Nativity of Jesus. Given that according to the Gospel of Luke (Luke 2:22–40),<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> 40 days after the birth of Jesus, along with the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Mary was purified according to Jewish customs. The Feast of the Purification began to be celebrated by the 5th century, and became the "Feast of Simeon" in Byzantium.<ref name =MaryClayton>Clayton, Mary. The Cult of the Virgin Mary in Anglo-Saxon England. 2003 Template:ISBN pp. 26–37</ref>
In the 7th and 8th centuries, four more Marian feasts were established in Eastern Christianity. In the West, a feast dedicated to Mary, just before Christmas was celebrated in the Churches of Milan and Ravenna in Italy in the 7th century. The four Roman Marian feasts of Purification, Annunciation, Assumption and Nativity of Mary were gradually and sporadically introduced into England by the 11th century.<ref name =MaryClayton />
Over time, the number and nature of feasts (and the associated Titles of Mary) and the venerative practices that accompany them have varied a great deal among diverse Christian traditions. Overall, there are significantly more titles, feasts and venerative Marian practices among Roman Catholics than any other Christians traditions.<ref name=FrankFlinn >Flinn, Frank K., J. Gordon MeltonEncyclopedia of Catholicism. 2007 Template:ISBN pp. 443–444</ref> Some such feasts relate to specific events, such as the Feast of Our Lady of Victory, based on the 1571 victory of the Papal States in the Battle of Lepanto.<ref>EWTN on Battle of Lepanto (1571) Our Lady and Islam: Heaven's Peace Plan – EWTN Template:Webarchive</ref><ref>by Butler, Alban, Peter Doyle. Butler's Lives of the Saints. 1999, Template:ISBN, p. 222.</ref>
Differences in feasts may also originate from doctrinal issues—the Feast of the Assumption is such an example. Given that there is no agreement among all Christians on the circumstances of the death, Dormition or Assumption of Mary, the feast of assumption is celebrated among some denominations and not others.<ref name="Hillerbrand" /><ref>Jackson, Gregory Lee, Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison. 1993 Template:ISBN p. 254</ref> While the Roman Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, some Eastern Catholics celebrate it as [[Dormition of the Mother of God|Dormition of the Template:Transliteration]], and may do so on 28 August, if they follow the Julian calendar. The Eastern Orthodox also celebrate it as the Dormition of the Template:Transliteration, one of their 12 Great Feasts. Protestants do not celebrate this, or any other Marian feasts.<ref name="Hillerbrand" />
RelicsEdit
The veneration of Marian relics used to be common practice before the Reformation. It was later largely surpassed by the veneration of Marian images.
Bodily relicsEdit
As Mary's body is believed by most Christians to have been taken up into the glory of heaven, her bodily relics have been limited to hair, nails and breast milk.
According to John Calvin's 1543 Treatise on Relics, her hair was exposed for veneration in several churches, including in Rome, Saint-Flour, Cluny and Nevers.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In this book, Calvin criticized the veneration of the Holy Milk due to the lack of biblical references to it and the doubts about the veracity of such relics:
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With regard to the milk, there is not perhaps a town, a convent, or nunnery, where it is not shown in large or small quantities. Indeed, had the Virgin been a wet-nurse her whole life, or a dairy, she could not have produced more than is shown as hers in various parts. How they obtained all this milk they do not say, and it is superfluous here to remark that there is no foundation in the Gospels for these foolish and blasphemous extravagances.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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Although the veneration of Marian bodily relics is no longer a common practice today, there are some remaining traces of it, such as the Chapel of the Milk Grotto in Bethlehem, named after Mary's milk.
ClothesEdit
Clothes which are believed to have belonged to Mary include the Cincture of the Theotokos kept in the Vatopedi monastery and her Holy Girdle kept in Mount Athos.
Other relics are said to have been collected during later Marian apparitions, such as her robe, veil, and part of her belt which were kept in Blachernae church in Constantinople after she appeared there during the 10th century. These relics, now lost, are celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches as the Intercession of the Theotokos.
Few other objects are said to have been touched or given by Mary during apparitions, notably a 1531 image printed on a tilma, known as Our Lady of Guadalupe, belonging to Juan Diego.
PlacesEdit
Places where Mary is believed to have lived include the Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto, Marche, and the House of the Virgin Mary in Ephesus.
Eastern Christians believe that she died and was put in the Tomb of the Virgin Mary near Jerusalem before the Assumption.
The belief that Mary's house was in Ephesus is recent, as it was claimed in the 19th century based on the visions of Anne Catherine Emmerich, an Augustinian nun in Germany.<ref name=Vatican >{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Emmerich, Anna Catherine: The Dolorous Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ Template:ISBN p. viii</ref> It has since been named as the House of the Virgin Mary by Roman Catholic pilgrims who consider it the place where Mary lived until her assumption.<ref>Frommer's Turkey by Lynn A. Levine 2010 Template:ISBN pp. 254–255</ref><ref>Home of the Assumption: Reconstructing Mary's Life in Ephesus by V. Antony John Alaharasan 2006 Template:ISBN p. 38</ref><ref>Stephen J. Schoemaker, 2006. The Ancient Traditions of the Virgin Mary's Dormition and Assumption, Template:ISBN, p. 76.</ref><ref>Mary's House by Donald Carroll (20 April 2000) Veritas, Template:ISBN</ref> The Gospel of John states that Mary went to live with the Disciple whom Jesus loved,<ref>Template:Bibleverse</ref> traditionally identified as John the Evangelist<ref>Based on Template:Bibleverse</ref> and John the Apostle. Irenaeus and Eusebius of Caesarea wrote in their histories that John later went to Ephesus, which may provide the basis for the early belief that Mary also lived in Ephesus with John.<ref>Irenaeus, Adversus haereses III,1,1; Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, III,1</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The apparition of Our Lady of the Pillar in the first century was believed to be a bilocation, as it occurred in Spain while Mary was living in Ephesus or Jerusalem. The pillar on which she was standing during the apparition is believed to be kept in the Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar in Zaragoza and is therefore venerated as a relics, as it was in physical contact with Mary.
In artsEdit
IconographyEdit
In paintings, Mary is traditionally portrayed in blue. This tradition can trace its origin to the Byzantine Empire, from Template:Circa AD, where blue was "the colour of an empress". A more practical explanation for the use of this colour is that in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, the blue pigment was derived from the rock lapis lazuli, a stone of greater value than gold, which was imported from Afghanistan. Beyond a painter's retainer, patrons were expected to purchase any gold or lapis lazuli to be used in the painting. Hence, it was an expression of devotion and glorification to swathe the Virgin in gowns of blue. Transformations in visual depictions of Mary from the 13th to 15th centuries mirror her "social" standing within the Church and in society.<ref name="Kugeares">Template:Cite book</ref>
Traditional representations of Mary include the crucifixion scene, called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref>de Bles, Arthur. How to Distinguish the Saints in Art by Their Costumes, Symbols and Attributes, 2004 Template:ISBN p. 35</ref><ref>Jameson, Anna. Legends of the Madonna: as represented in the fine arts. 2006 Template:ISBN p. 37</ref> While not recorded in the Gospel accounts, Mary cradling the dead body of her son is a common motif in art, called a "pietà" or "pity".
In the Egyptian, Eritrean, and Ethiopian tradition, Mary has been portrayed in story and paint for centuries.<ref>Chojnacki, Stanisław. 1977. "Note on the Early Imagery of the Virgin Mary in Ethiopia." Ethnologische Zeitschrift 3: 5–41.</ref> Beginning in the 1600s, however, highland Ethiopians began portraying Mary performing a variety of miracles for the faithful, including paintings of her giving water to a thirsty dog, healing monks with her breast milk, and saving a man eaten by a crocodile.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Over 1,000 such stories about her exist in this tradition, and about one hundred of those have hundreds of paintings each, in various manuscripts, adding up to thousands of paintings.<ref>Brown, Jeremy, Mehari Worku, Dawit Muluneh, and Evgeniia Lambrinaki. 2023. "The Ethiopian Stories about the Miracles of the Virgin Mary (Täˀammərä Maryam)." In Ethiopia at the Crossroads: Exhibition Catalogue, edited by Christine Sciacca. Baltimore, MD: Walters Art Museum.</ref>
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Mary nursing the Infant Jesus. Early image from the Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, Template:Circa
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Trojeručica, a Byzantine representation of the Theotokos, (Template:Circa), in Hilandar. Serbia
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Our Lady of Vladimir, a Byzantine representation of the Theotokos
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Template:Transliteration, from the 11th century Gertrude Psalter
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Lamentation by Pietro Lorenzetti, Assisi Basilica, Template:Circa
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Black Madonna and Child, Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, Axum, Ethiopia
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Chinese Madonna, St. Francis' Church, Macao
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Michelangelo's Pietà (1498–99) in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City
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Visitation, from the St Vaast Altarpiece by Jacques Daret, 1434–1435
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Virgin of Guadalupe, from the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Mexico City, 16th century
- Our Lady of La Naval de Manila.jpg
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Madonna on Floral Wreath by Peter Paul Rubens with Jan Brueghel the Elder, Template:Circa
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Adoration of the Magi, Rubens, 1634
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Virgin and Child, French (15th century)
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Mary and Jesus, outside the Jongno Catholic Church in Seoul, South Korea.
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Statue of Mary and Jesus at Gwanghwamun, pictured at the time of Pope Francis' visit to South Korea, 2014.
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Mary outside St. Nikolai Catholic Church in Ystad 2021
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A kneeling Virgin Mary pictured in the former coat of arms of Maaria
Cinematic portrayalsEdit
Mary has been portrayed in various films and on television, including: Template:Div col
- The Miracle (1912) color silent film of the 1911 play The Miracle, a statue of Mary, played by Maria Carmi, comes to life
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (1912) silent film; a German version of the 1911 play The Miracle
- The Song of Bernadette (1943 film), played by Linda Darnell.
- The Living Christ Series (1951 non-theatrical, non-television film twelve-part series), played by Eileen Rowe.
- The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima (1952 film), played by Virginia Gibson.
- Ben-Hur (1959 film), played by José Greci.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- The Miracle (1959 film; a loose remake of the 1912 film {{#invoke:Lang|lang}})
- King of Kings (1961 film), played by Siobhán McKenna.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965 film), played by Dorothy McGuire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Jesus of Nazareth (1977 two-part television miniseries), played by Olivia Hussey.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- The Last Temptation of Christ (1988 film), played by Verna Bloom.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Mary, Mother of Jesus (1999 television film), played by Pernilla August.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Saint Mary (2002 film), played by Shabnam Gholikhani.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- The Passion of the Christ (2004 film), played by Maia Morgenstern.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Imperium: Saint Peter (2005 television film), played by Lina Sastri.
- Color of the Cross (2006 film), played by Debbi Morgan.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- The Nativity Story (2006 film), played by Keisha Castle-Hughes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- The Passion (2008 television miniseries), played by Paloma Baeza.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }} Featured in ITV documentary.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- The Nativity (2010 four-part miniseries), played by Tatiana Maslany.
- Mary of Nazareth (2012 film), played by Alissa Jung.
- Son of God (2014 film), played by Roma Downey.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- The Chosen (2017 TV series), played by Vanessa Benavente.
- Mary Magdalene (2018 film), played by Irit Sheleg.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Jesus: His Life (2019 TV series), played by Houda Echouafni.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Fatima (2020 film), played by Joana Ribeiro.
- Mary (2024 film), played by Noa Cohen.
MusicEdit
- Claudio Monteverdi: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (1610)
- Johann Sebastian Bach: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (1723, rev. 1733)
- Franz Schubert: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (1835)
- Charles Gounod: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (1859)
- John Tavener: Mother and Child, setting a poem by Brian Keeble for choir, organ and temple gong (2002)
See alsoEdit
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- Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary
- Genealogy of Jesus
- History of Catholic Mariology
- Holy Name of Mary
- Hymns to Mary
- Marian and Holy Trinity columns
- May crowning
- Miriai; Mandaean heroine that many equate with Mary
- New Testament people named Mary
- Shrines to the Virgin Mary
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
Further readingEdit
- Brown, Raymond E., The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives of Matthew and Luke: New and Updated Edition, Anchor Bible Reference Library/Doubleday, 1993, Template:ISBN
- Brown, Raymond, E., Donfried, Karl, P., Fitzmyer, Joseph A., & Reumann, John, (eds.), Mary in the New Testament, Fortress/Paulist Press, 1978, Template:ISBN
- Kugeares, Sophia Manoulian. Images of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary of the 13th, 14th and 15th Century. n.p.: 1991, University of South Florida Libraries Catalog. Web. 8 April 2016. Hahn, Scott, Hail, Holy Queen: The Mother of God in the Word of God, Doubleday, 2001, Template:ISBN
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
External linksEdit
- Mariological Society of America
- Church Fathers on the Sinless Nature of Mary
- Church Fathers on the Perpetual Virginity of Mary
- Mary (Biblical perspective)
- Apostolic exhortation of Paul VI. Marialis Cultus
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