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Kurgan

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File:LYablonskyFilipovkaKurganR1.jpg
Sarmatian Kurgan, fourth century BC, Fillipovka, South Urals, Russia. A dig led by Russian Academy of Sciences Archeology Institute Prof. L. Yablonsky excavated this kurgan in 2006. It is the first kurgan known to have been completely destroyed and then rebuilt to its original appearance.

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A kurgan is a type of tumulus (burial mound) constructed over a grave, often characterized by containing a single human body along with grave vessels, weapons, and horses. Originally in use on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, kurgans spread into much of Central Asia and Eastern, Southeast, Western, and Northern Europe during the third millennium BC.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The earliest kurgans date to the fourth millennium BC in the Caucasus,Template:Sfn and some researchers associate these with the Indo-Europeans.Template:Sfn Kurgans were built in the Eneolithic, Bronze, Iron, Antiquity, and Middle Ages, with ancient traditions still active in Southern Siberia and Central Asia.

EtymologyEdit

According to the Etymological dictionary of the Ukrainian language the word "kurhan" is borrowed directly from the Kipchak, part of the Turkic languages, and means: fortress, embankment, high grave.<ref>Етимологічний словник української мови: В 7 т. / АН УРСР. Ін-т мовознавства ім. О. О. Потебні; Редкол. О. С. Мельничук (головний ред.) та ін. — К.: Наук. думка, 1983. Т. 3: Кора — М / Укл.: Р. В. Болдирєв та ін. — 1989. — 552 с. стр. 152</ref> The word has two possible etymologies, either from the Old Turkic root qori- "to close, to block, to guard, to protect", or qur- "to build, to erect, furnish, or stur". According to Vasily Radlov it may be a cognate to qorγan, meaning "fortification, fortress, or a castle".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Russian noun, already attested in Old East Slavic, comes from an unidentified Turkic language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Kurgans are mounds of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Popularised by its use in Soviet archaeology, the word is now widely used for tumuli in the context of Eastern European and Central Asian archaeology.Template:Cn

Origins and spreadEdit

Some sceptre graves could have been covered with a tumulus, placing the first kurgans as early as the fifth millennium BC in eastern Europe. However, this hypothesis is not accepted unanimously.Template:Sfn Kurgans were used in Ukrainian and Russian steppes, their use spreading with migration into southern, central, and northern Europe in the third millennium BC.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Later, Kurgan barrows became characteristic of Bronze Age peoples, and have been found from Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria (Thracians, Getae, etc.), and Romania (Getae, Dacians), the Caucasus, Russia, to Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and the Altay Mountains.Template:Cn

Kurgan hypothesisEdit

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The Kurgan hypothesis is that Proto-Indo-Europeans were the bearers of the Kurgan culture of the Black Sea and the Caucasus and west of the Urals. Introduced by Marija Gimbutas in 1956, it combines kurgan archaeology with linguistics to locate the origins of the peoples who spoke the Proto-Indo-European language. She tentatively named the culture "Kurgan" after its distinctive burial mounds and traced its diffusion into Europe. The hypothesis has had a significant effect upon Indo-European studies.

Scholars who follow Gimbutas identify a "Kurgan culture" as reflecting an early Proto-Indo-European ethnicity that existed in the steppes and in southeastern Europe from the fifth millennium to the third millennium BC. In Kurgan cultures, most burials were in kurgans, either clan or individual. Most prominent leaders were buried in individual kurgans, now called "royal kurgans". These individual kurgans have attracted the most attention and publicity because they were more elaborate than clan kurgans and contained grave goods.

Scytho-Siberian monumentsEdit

The monuments of these cultures coincide with the Scytho-Siberian world (Saka) monuments. Scytho-Siberian monuments have common features and sometimes, common genetic roots.<ref>Akishev K.A., Kushaev G.A., Ancient culture of Sakas and Usuns in the valley of river Ili, Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences publication, 1963, pp. 121–36</ref> Also associated with these spectacular burial mounds are the Pazyryk, an ancient people who lived in the Altai Mountains that lay in Siberian Russia on the Ukok Plateau, near the borders with China, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia.<ref name="nova">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The archaeological site on the Ukok Plateau associated with the Pazyryk culture is included in the Golden Mountains of Altai UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Scytho-Siberian classification includes monuments from the eighth to the third century BC. This period is called the Early or Ancient Nomads epoch. "Hunnic" monuments date from the third century BC to the sixth century AD, and Turkic ones from the sixth century AD to the thirteenth century AD, leading up to the Mongolian epoch.Template:Cn

UseEdit

Template:More citations needed section

ArchitectureEdit

Burial mounds are complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, elite individuals were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots. The structures of the earlier Neolithic period from the fourth to the third millenniums BC, and Bronze Age until the first millennium BC, display continuity of the archaic forming methods. They were inspired by common ritual-mythological concepts.

Common componentsEdit

File:Sveshtari Thracian tomb Bulgaria IFB.JPG
Inside view of the Thracian mound tomb at Sveshtari, Bulgaria

In all periods, the development of the kurgan structure tradition in the various ethnocultural zones is revealed by common components or typical features in the construction of the monuments. They include: Template:Div col

  • funeral chambers
  • tombs
  • surface and underground constructions of different configurations
  • a mound of earth or stone, with or without an entrance
  • funeral, ritual, and other traits
  • the presence of an altar in the chamber
  • a stone fence
  • a moat
  • a bulwark
  • funeral paths from the moat or bulwark.
  • the presence of an entryway into the chamber, into the tomb, into the fence, or into the kurgan
  • the location of a sacrificial site on the embankments, inside the mound, inside the moat, inside the embankments, and in their links, entryways, and around the kurgan
  • a fire pit in the chamber
  • a wooden roof over or under the kurgan, at the top of the kurgan, or around the kurgan
  • the location of stone statues, columns, poles, and other objects
  • bypass passages inside the kurgan, inside tombs, or around the kurgan

Template:Div col end

Depending on the combination of these elements, each historical and cultural nomadic zone has certain architectural distinctions.

Pre-Scytho-Sibirian kurgans (Bronze Age)Edit

In the Bronze Age, kurgans were built with stone reinforcements. Some of them are believed to be Scythian burials with built-up soil and embankments reinforced with stone (Olhovsky, 1991).

Pre-Scytho-Sibirian kurgans were surface kurgans. Wooden or stone tombs were constructed on the surface or underground and then covered with a kurgan. The kurgan tombs of Bronze culture across Europe and Asia were similar in construction to the methods of house construction in the culture.<ref name="autogenerated1">Margulan A.N., "Architecture of the ancient period" in the Architecture of Kazakhstan, 1956, Alma-Ata, (pp 9-95)</ref> Kurgan Ak-su - Aüly (twelfth–eleventh centuries BC) with a tomb covered by a pyramidal timber roof under a kurgan has space surrounded by double walls serving as a bypass corridor. This design has analogies with Begazy, Sanguyr, Begasar, and Dandybay kurgans.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> These building traditions survived into the early Middle Ages, to the eighth–tenth centuries AD.

The Bronze Pre-Scytho-Sibirian culture developed in close similarity with the cultures of Yenisei, Altai, Kazakhstan, southern, and southeast Amur regions.

Some kurgans had facing or tiling. One tomb in Ukraine has 29 large limestone slabs set on end in a circle underground. They were decorated with carved geometrical ornamentation of rhombuses, triangles, crosses, and on one slab, figures of people. Another example has an earthen kurgan under a wooden cone of thick logs topped by an ornamented cornice up to 2 m in height.

Scytho-Siberian kurgans (Early Iron Age)Edit

File:Карло Боссоли. Могила Митридата.jpg
Coloured lithograph by Carlo Bossoli (London, 1856)<ref>British Museum</ref> of the so-called "Tomb of Mithridates", kurgan near Kerch

The Scytho-Siberian kurgans in the Early Iron Age have grandiose mounds throughout the Eurasian continent.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Regional and temporal sex ratiosEdit

In the eastern Manych steppes and Kuban–Azov steppes during the Yamna culture,<ref name=anthonyd/> a near-equal ratio of female-to-male graves was found among kurgans.

In the lower and middle Volga river region during the Yamna and Poltavka cultures, females were buried in about 20% of graves and two thousand years later, women dressed as warriors were buried in the same region.<ref name=anthonyd/> David Anthony notes, "About 20% of Scythian – Sarmatian 'warrior graves' on the lower Don and lower Volga contained females dressed for battle... a phenomenon that probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons."<ref name=anthonyd>Template:Cite book</ref>

In Ukraine, the ratio was intermediate between the other two regions, therefore approximately 35% were women.<ref name=anthonyd/>

Archaeological remainsEdit

The most obvious archeological remains associated with the Scythians are the great burial mounds, some more than 20 m high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watersheds. From them much has been learnt about Scythian life and art.<ref>John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, N.G.L. Hammond. It The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. (1992), p. 550 Template:ISBN?</ref>

Excavated kurgansEdit

Some excavated kurgans include:

  • The Ipatovo kurgan revealed a long sequence of burials from the Maykop culture c. 4000 BC down to the burial of an elite woman of the third century BC, excavated 1998–99.
  • Kurgan 4 at Kutuluk near Samara, Russia, dated to c. 2400 BC, contains the skeleton of a man, estimated to have been 35 to 40 years old and about 152 cm tall.<ref>Rose, M., Cudgel Culture Archaeology, March/April, 2002Template:Dead link</ref> Resting on the skeleton's bent left elbow was a copper object 65 cm long with a blade of a diamond-shaped cross-section and sharp edges, but no point, and a handle, originally probably wrapped in leather. No similar object is known from Bronze Age Eurasian steppe cultures.
  • The Maikop kurgan dates to the third millennium BC.
  • The Novovelichkovskaya kurgan of c. 2000 BC on the Ponura River, Krasnodar region, southern Russia, contains the remains of 11 people, including an embracing couple, buried with bronze tools, stone carvings, jewelry, and ceramic vessels decorated with red ocher. The tomb is associated with the Novotitorovka culture nomads.
  • The Kostromskaya kurgan of the seventh century BC produced a famous Scythian gold stag (now at Hermitage Museum), next to the iron shield it decorated.<ref>Honour and Fleming, 124</ref> Apart from the principal male body with his accoutrements, the burial included thirteen humans with no adornment above him, and around the edges of the burial twenty-two horses were buried in pairs.<ref>Honour and Fleming, 123</ref> It was excavated by N. I. Veselovski in 1897.<ref>Piotrovsky, 29</ref>
  • The Issyk kurgan, in southern Kazakhstan, contains a skeleton, possibly female, c. fourth century BC, with an inscribed silver cup, gold ornaments, Scythian animal art objects, and headdress reminiscent of Kazakh bridal hats; was discovered in 1969.
  • Kurgan 11 of the Berel cemetery, in the Bukhtarma River valley of Kazakhstan, contains a tomb of c. 300 BC, with a dozen sacrificed horses preserved with their skin, hair, harnesses, and saddles intact, buried side by side on a bed of birch bark next to a funeral chamber containing the pillaged burial of two Scythian nobles; excavated in 1998.
  • The Tovsta Mohyla Kurgan belongs to the fourth century BC and was excavated in 1971 by the Ukrainian archaeologist Boris M. Mozolevsky. It contained the famous Golden Pectoral from Tovsta Mohyla that is now in exhibition in the Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine, which is located inside the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra, in Kyiv. This pectoral is the most famous artwork connected with the Scythians. A beautiful sword scabbard was found in the antechamber of the burial, which was never robbed (differently from the main chamber). A second lateral burial was found intact in the same Kurgan. It belonged to a woman and her two-year old daughter. She was found covered with gold, including a golden diadem and other fine golden jewels. The woman's burial is interpreted as likely related to burial at the center of the Kurgan. The Tovsta Mohyla Kurgan, 60 m in diameter before the excavation, is located in present-day southern Ukraine near the city of Pokrov in the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.
  • The Ryzhanivka kurgan, a Template:Convert kurgan 125 km south of Kyiv, Ukraine, containing the tomb of a Scythian chieftain, third century BC, was excavated in 1996.
  • The Solokha kurgan, in the Zaporizhzhia Oblast of Ukraine, Scythian, dates to the early fourth century BC.
  • Mamai-Hora, kurgan complex on the banks of Kakhovka Reservoir southwest of Enerhodar (near the village of Velyka Znamianka). Known as one of the biggest tumulus in Europe. The height of the kurgan is 80 meters. Here were found remains of people from Bronze Age, Scythians, Sarmatians, Cimmerians, and Nogai people.
  • The Melgunov kurgan near Kropyvnytskyi, one of the oldest Scythian kurgans dating back to seventh century BC.
  • The Melitopol kurgan near Melitopol was excavated and its assemblage included Scythian gold jewellery, which is now in the collection of the Melitopol Museum of Local History.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Kurgans in PolandEdit

File:VarnaMemorial.jpg
Memorial of the Battle of Varna, which took place on 10 November 1444 near Varna, Bulgaria. The facade of the mausoleum is built into the side of an ancient Thracian tomb.

Kurgan building has a long history in Poland. The Polish word for kurgan is kopiec or kurhan. Some excavated kurgans in Poland:

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

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SourcesEdit

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Further readingEdit

  • "In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth" by J. P. Mallory, Template:ISBN
  • "The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles Form 1952 to 1993" von Marija Gimbutas u.a., Template:ISBN
  • "Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture" ed. James Mallory, D. Q. Adams, Template:ISBN
  • D. Ya. Telegin et al., Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona. Kyiv: Shlyakh, 2001. Reviewed by J.P. Mallory, JIES vol. 32, 3/4, p. 363–366.
  • "Reconstruction Of The Genofond Peculiarities Of The Ancient Pazyryk Population (1st-2nd Millennium BC) From Gorny Altai According To The mtDNA Structure" Voevoda M.I., Sitnikova V.V., Romashchenko A.G., Chikisheva T.A., Polosmak N.V., Molodin V. I http://www.bionet.nsc.ru/bgrs/thesis/99/.
  • O. Ismagulov 'Population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (Paleoanthropological research)', Science, Alma-Ata, 1970

External linksEdit

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