Phonological history of English open back vowels

Template:Short description Template:English phonology topics The phonology of the open back vowels of the English language has undergone changes both overall and with regional variations, through Old and Middle English to the present. The sounds heard in modern English were significantly influenced by the Great Vowel Shift, as well as more recent developments in some dialects such as the cot–caught merger.

Overview

Old and Middle English

In the Old English vowel system, the vowels in the open back area were unrounded: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. There were also rounded back vowels of mid-height: {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The corresponding spellings were Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr, with the length distinctions not normally marked; in modern editions of Old English texts, the long vowels are often written Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr.

As the Old English (OE) system developed into that of Middle English (ME), the OE short vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} merged with the fronted {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to become a more central ME {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Meanwhile, the OE long vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} was rounded and raised to ME {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. OE short {{#invoke:IPA|main}} remained relatively unchanged, becoming a short ME vowel regarded as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, while OE long {{#invoke:IPA|main}} became ME {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (a higher vowel than {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). Alternative developments were also possible; see English historical vowel correspondences for details.

Later, ME open syllable lengthening caused the short vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to be normally changed to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in open syllables. Remaining instances of the short vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} also tended to become lower. Hence in Late Middle English (around 1400) the following open back vowels were present, distinguished by length:Template:Sfnp

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, spelt Template:Angbr, as in dog, god
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, often spelt Template:Angbr, or Template:Angbr before consonant+vowel or certain consonant pairs, as in boat, whole, old

16th-century changes

By 1600, the following changes had occurred:

• The long vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} of boat had been raised to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as a result of the Great Vowel Shift.
• The diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}} found in words such as cause, law, all, salt, psalm, half, change, chamber, dance had become an open back monophthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
• At this time, the short {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in dog was lowered to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

There were thus two open back monophthongs:

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in lot
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in cause

and one open back diphthong:

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in low

17th-century changes

By 1700, the following further developments had taken place:

• The diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}} of soul was raised to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and then monophthongized to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, merging with boat (see toe–tow merger). Before {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, this vowel further merged with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} due to the horse–hoarse merger except in some varieties, as currently seen in Irish English, Scottish English and African American Vernacular English.
• Short {{#invoke:IPA|main}} was retracted and rounded to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The shift was suppressed before a velar consonant, as in quack, twang, wag, wax, and also was suppressed by analogy in swam (the irregular past tense of swim). The change of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} did not occur in Mid-Ulster English.
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} had begun to partake in lengthening and raising before a nonprevocalic voiceless fricative or /r/. That resulted in words like broth, cost and off having {{#invoke:IPA|main}} instead of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and was the start of the [[#LOT–CLOTH split|Template:Sc2 split]] (see further below).
• In words such as change and chamber, the pronunciation {{#invoke:IPA|main}} was gradually replaced in the standard language by a variant with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, derived from Middle English {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. That explains the contemporary pronunciation of these words with {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
• However, when {{#invoke:IPA|main}} preceded {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, as in laugh and half, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} was shifted to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} instead, derived from Middle English {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.
• An unrounded back vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} developed, found in certain classes of words that had previously had {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, like start, father and palm.

That left the standard form of the language with four open back vowels:

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in lot and want.
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in cloth and cost.
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in start, father and palm.
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in tor, cause, and corn.

Later changes

From the 18th century on, the following changes have occurred:

• The three-way distinction between {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} was simplified in one of two ways:
  • In General American and old-fashioned RP, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} was raised to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, merging with the vowel in Template:Sc2 (the cloth-thought merger).
  • In many accents of England, the lengthening of the Template:Sc2 set was undone, restoring the short pronunciation {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This became standard RP by the mid-20th century.
• In General American, the lot vowel has become unrounded and merged into {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (the father–bother merger).

This leaves RP with three back vowels:

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in lot, want, cloth, and cost.
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in tor, cause, and corn.
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in start, father, and palm.

and General American with two:

• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in lot, want, start, father, and palm.
• {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in tor, cause, corn, cloth and cost.

Unrounded Template:Sc2

In a few varieties of English, the vowel in lot is unrounded, pronounced toward [{{#invoke:IPA|main}}]. This is found in the following dialects:

• Most of Irish English
• Much of the Caribbean
• Norwich
• The West Country and the West Midlands of England
• Most of North American English
  • Excluding northeastern New England English and Western Pennsylvania English, where it is typically raised toward {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, merging with the vowel in thought.

There's also evidence for it in South East England as early as the late 16th century and as late as the 19th century.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

LinguistsTemplate:Which? disagree as to whether the unrounding of the lot vowel occurred independently in North America (probably occurring around the end of the 17th century) or was imported from certain types of speech current in Britain at that time.Template:Citation needed

In such accents outside of North America, lot typically is pronounced as {{#invoke:IPA|main}},Template:Sfnp therefore being kept distinct from the vowel in palm, pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. However, the major exception to this is North American English, where the vowel is lengthened to merge with the vowel in palm, as described below. This merger is called the Template:Sc2 merger or more commonly the father–bother merger. (See further below.)

Father–bother merger

The father–bother merger is a phonemic merger of the lexical sets Template:Sc2 and Template:Sc2. It represents unrounded lot, as detailed above, taken a step further. On top of being unrounded, the length distinction between the vowel in lot and bother and the vowel in palm and father is lost, so that the two groups merge. This causes father and bother to become rhymes.

This occurs in the great majority of North American accents; of the North American dialects that have unrounded lot, the only notable exception to the merger is New York City English, where the opposition with the {{#invoke:IPA|main}}-type vowel is somewhat tenuous.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Examples of possible homophones resulting from the merger include Khan and con ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) as well as Saab and sob ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}).Template:Sfnp

While the accents in northeastern New England, such as the Boston accent, also remain unmerged, lot remains rounded and merges instead with cloth and thought.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Homophonous pairs

main}}	/ɒ/ or /ɔ/Template:Efn	IPA (using Template:Angbr IPA for the merged vowel)	Notes
ah	awe	main}}	with the cot-caught merger
balm	bomb	main}}	when the <l> in balm is unsounded
Bali	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
baht	bot	main}}
baht	bought	main}}	with the cot-caught merger
Dalí	dolly	main}}
Hajj	Hodge	main}}
Khan	con	main}}
citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || law || {{#invoke:IPA|main}} || with the cot-caught merger
lager	logger	main}}
Mali	Molly	main}}
pa	paw	main}}	with the cot-caught merger
palm	pom	main}}	when the <l> in palm is unsounded
Prague	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref> || {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Raab	rob	main}}
Saab	sob	main}}
Shah	Shaw	main}}	with the cot-caught merger
Siân	Sean, Shaun, Shawn	main}}	with the cot-caught merger
Siân	shone	main}}
Stalin	stalling	main}}	with the cot-caught merger and G-dropping.

Template:Sc2 split

The Template:Sc2 split is the result of a late 17th-century sound change that lengthened {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before voiceless fricatives, and also before {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the words gone and sometimes on. It was ultimately raised and merged with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} of words like thought, although in some accents that vowel is actually open {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. This means that Template:Sc2 is not a separate vowel; rather, it means "either Template:Sc2 or Template:Sc2, depending on the accent". The sound change is most consistent in the last syllable of a word, and much less so elsewhere (see below). Some words that entered the language later, especially when used more in writing than speech, are exempt from the lengthening, e.g. joss and Goth with the short vowel. Similar changes took place in words with Template:Angbr; see trap–bath split and /æ/-tensing.

The cot–caught merger, discussed below, has removed the distinction in some dialects.

As a result of the lengthening and raising, in the above-mentioned accents cross rhymes with sauce, and soft and cloth also have the vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Accents affected by this change include American English accents that lack the cot-caught merger and formerly RP, although with the exception of water {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, today words of this group almost always have short {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in RP.

The lengthening and raising generally happened before the fricatives {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and in the word water for an unknown reason (compare the broadening of a in father). In American English, the raising was extended to the environment before velars {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and sometimes before {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as well, giving pronunciations like {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for long, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for dog and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for chocolate.

In the varieties of American English that have the lot–cloth split, the lot vowel is usually symbolized as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, often called the "short o" for historical reasons, as the corresponding RP vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is still short (and it contrasts with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as in father and start). The thought vowel is usually transcribed as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and it is often called the "open o". Its actual phonetic realization may be open Template:IPAblink, whereas the lot vowel may be realized as central Template:IPAblink. Some words vary as to which vowel they have. For example, words that end in -og like frog, hog, fog, log, bog etc. have {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in some accents and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in others.

There are also significant complexities in the pronunciation of written o occurring before one of the triggering phonemes {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in a non-final syllable. In other cases, however, the use of the open o as opposed to the short o is largely predictable. Just like with /æ/-tensing and the trap–bath split, there seems to be an open-syllable constraint. Namely, the change did not affect words with /ɑ/ in open syllables unless they were closely derived from words with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in closed syllables. Hence {{#invoke:IPA|main}} occurs in crossing, crosser, crosses because it occurs in cross. In contrast, possible, jostle, impostor, profit, Gothic, and boggle all have {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. However, there are still exceptions in words like Boston and foster.<ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref><ref>Template:Cite Merriam-Webster</ref> A further list of words is mentioned in the table below:

Vowels with lot–cloth splits

Set	Template:Sc2 ({{#invoke:IPA|main}})	Template:Sc ({{#invoke:IPA|main}})	Variable
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	coffer, coffin, cough, off, office, often, soften, trough, etc.	philosophical, profit	coffee, offense, offer, waffle
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	croft, loft, lofty, soft, etc.	waft	Template:N/A
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	dog	boggle, cog, flog	blog, boondoggle, fog, frog, hog, log, soggy, tog, etc.
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	bock, chocolate	all other words in this set	clock, mock, shock
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	gone	all other words in this set	beyond, on, upon, wantTemplate:Efn, wont
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	long, longest, song, strong, thong, wrong, etc.	Congo, bongo, congress, conquer	donkey, conch
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	boss, cross, floss, glossy, loss, moss, toss, etc.	apostle, fossil, gossip, jostle, oscillate, philosophy, posse, possible, possum, rhinoceros, velocity	glossary
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	accost, Boston, cost, foster, frost, lost	apostrophe, (a/pro)gnostic, hostage, hostel, hostile, impostor, nostril, ossify, ostensible, ostentatious, ostracism, posterity, prosecute, roster	Gloucester, nostalgia, ostrich, rostrum
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Washington, wash, washer	all other words in this set	gosh, quash, squash, swash
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	water	all other words in this set	Template:N/A
{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	broth, cloth, froth, moth, etc.	Goth, Gothic	sloth, swath, troth, wrath

Some words may vary depending on the speaker like (coffee, offer, donkey, soggy, boondoggle, etc. with either {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).Template:Citation needed Meanwhile, other words vary by region. For example, the word on, which in Northern American English dialects without the cot-caught merger is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, rhyming with don, but in Midland and Southern American English without the merger is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, rhyming with dawn. The isogloss for this difference, termed the ON line, lies between New York City and Philadelphia on the East Coast and runs West as far as speakers without the merger can be found.Template:Sfnp Pronunciation of the word want as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is also strongly associated with the South.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Cot–caught merger

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

The cot–caught merger (also known as the low back merger or the [[lexical set|Template:Sc2]] merger) is a phonemic merger occurring in many accents of English, where the vowel sound in words like cot, nod, and stock (the Template:Sc2 vowel), has merged with that of caught, gnawed, and stalk (the Template:Sc2 vowel). For example, with the merger, cot and caught become perfect homophones.

Lexical changes in cot–caught merger dialects of North America

Lexical set	Example words	Change	GenAm phonemes	Minimal pairs	IPA	Change	Cot–caught merger dialects
Template:Sc2	ah, father, spa	Father–bother merger	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	cot, collar, stock, wok, chock, Don	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}	Cot–caught merger	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Template:Sc2	bother, lot, wasp
Template:Sc2	boss, cloth, dog, off	Cloth-thought merger	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}	caught, caller, stalk, walk, chalk, dawn	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Template:Sc2	all, thought, flaunt

Other changes

Template:Sc2 merger

The Template:Sc2 merger is a merger of the English vowels of Template:Sc2 {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and Template:Sc2 {{#invoke:IPA|main}} that has been reported in Geordie since the late 20th century, with a quality around [oː]. The merger is more common among younger female speakers.<ref name=warburton>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The merger also exists among older speakers in Bradford English with a quality around [ɔː], but younger speakers are more likely to resist the merger by fronting the Template:Sc2 vowel.<ref name=warburton/>

Homophonous pairs

main}}	/oʊ/	IPA (using Template:Angbr IPA for the merged vowel)	Notes
aboard	abode	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
alder	older	main}}
augur	ogre	main}}
auk	oak	main}}
awe	O	main}}
awe	oh	main}}
awe	owe	main}}
awed	ode	main}}
awning	owning	main}}
bald	bold	main}}
bald	bowled	main}}
ball	bowl	main}}
boar	beau	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
bore	beau	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
boar	bow	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
bore	bow	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
board	bode	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
bored	bode	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
born	bone	main}}	non-rhotic
caulk	coke	main}}
call	coal	main}}
caller	cola	main}}	non-rhotic
caught	coat	main}}
cawed	code	main}}
chalk	choke	main}}
chord	code	main}}	non-rhotic
clause	close	main}}
claws	close	main}}
cord	code	main}}	non-rhotic
cork	coke	main}}	non-rhotic
corks	coax	main}}	non-rhotic
court	coat	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
daunt	don't	main}}
door	doe	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
drawl	droll	main}}
drawn	drone	main}}
explored	explode	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
fall	foal	main}}
fawn	phone	main}}
flaw	flow	main}}
floor	flow	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
for	foe	main}}	non-rhotic
fore	foe	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
fork	folk	main}}	non-rhotic
form	foam	main}}	non-rhotic
four	foe	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
gall	goal	main}}
galled	gold	main}}
Gaul	goal	main}}
gnaw	know	main}}
gnaw	no	main}}
hall	hole	main}}
hall	whole	main}}
haul	hole	main}}
haul	whole	main}}
hauled	hold	main}}
haw	ho	main}}
haw	hoe	main}}
hawks	hoax	main}}
hoard	hoed	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
horn	hone	main}}	non-rhotic
jaw	Joe	main}}
laud	lord	main}}
law	low	main}}
lawn	loan	main}}
lawn	lone	main}}
lord	load	main}}	non-rhotic
lore	low	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
mall	mole	main}}
maul	mole	main}}
mauled	mould	main}}
maw	mow	main}}
more	mow	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
mortar	motor	main}}	non-rhotic
nor	know	main}}	non-rhotic
nor	no	main}}	non-rhotic
norm	gnome	main}}	non-rhotic
nought	note	main}}
oar	O	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
oar	oh	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
oar	owe	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
or	O	main}}	non-rhotic
or	oh	main}}	non-rhotic
or	owe	main}}	non-rhotic
order	odour	main}}	non-rhotic
ore	O	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
ore	oh	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
ore	owe	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
overawed	overrode	main}}
pall	pole	main}}
Paul	pole	main}}
pause	pose	main}}
paws	pose	main}}
pores	pose	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
pours	pose	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
porch	poach	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
pork	poke	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
portion	potion	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
prawn	prone	main}}
quart	quote	main}}	non-rhotic
raw	row	main}}
roar	row	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
saw	sew	main}}
saw	so	main}}
scald	scold	main}}
scrawl	scroll	main}}
shawl	shoal	main}}
Shaun	shown	main}}
Shaw	show	main}}
shore	show	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
shorn	shown	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
slaw	slow	main}}
snore	snow	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
stalk	stoke	main}}
stall	stole	main}}
store	stow	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
stork	stoke	main}}	non-rhotic
strawed	strode	main}}
talk	toque	main}}
taught	tote	main}}
taut	tote	main}}
tor	toe	main}}	non-rhotic
tor	tow	main}}	non-rhotic
tore	toe	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
tore	tow	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
torn	tone	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
tawny	Tony	main}}
trawl	troll	main}}
walk	woke	main}}
walled	wold	main}}
war	woe	main}}	non-rhotic
ward	wode	main}}	non-rhotic
warred	wode	main}}	non-rhotic
yore	yo	main}}	non-rhotic with the horse-hoarse merger
York	yolk	main}}
York	yoke	main}}

Template:Sc2 split

In some London accents of English, the vowel in words such as thought, force, and north, which merged earlier on in these varieties of English, undergoes a conditional split based on syllable structure: closed syllables have a higher vowel quality such as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (possibly even {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in broad Cockney varieties), and open syllables have a lower vowel quality {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or a centering diphthong {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.

Originally-open syllables with an inflectional suffix (such as bored) retain the lower vowel quality, creating minimal pairs such as bored {{#invoke:IPA|main}} vs. board {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfnp

In broad Geordie, some Template:Sc2 words (roughly, those spelled with a, as in walk and talk) have Template:IPAblink (which phonetically is the long counterpart of Template:Sc2 {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) instead of the standard Template:IPAblink. Those are the traditional dialect forms which are being replaced with the standard Template:IPAblink. Template:IPAblink is therefore not necessarily a distinct phoneme in the vowel system of Geordie, also because it occurs as an allophone of {{#invoke:IPA|main}} before voiced consonants.Template:Sfnp

Template:Sc2 merger

The Template:Sc2 merger is a merger of the English vowel of Template:Sc2 {{#invoke:IPA|main}} into the vowel of Template:Sc2 {{#invoke:IPA|main}} that appears in Received Pronunciation and some speakers of New Zealand English, occurring only when the vowel appears after wr (historical {{#invoke:IPA|main}})Template:Citation needed.

Distribution of {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

The distribution of the vowel transcribed with Template:Angbr IPA in broad IPA varies greatly among dialects. It corresponds to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and (when not prevocalic within the same word) {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and even {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in other dialects:

• In non-rhotic dialects spoken outside of North America, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} corresponds mostly to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in General American and so is most often spelled Template:Angbr. In dialects with the trap–bath split (such as Received Pronunciation, New Zealand English and South African English), it also corresponds to GA {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, which means that it can also be spelled Template:Angbr before voiceless fricatives. In those dialects, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are separate phonemes.
• In native words, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in most non-rhotic speech of North America corresponds to both {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in GA (RP {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in RP, as those dialects feature the father–bother merger.
• North American English features the father–bother merger, where {{#invoke:IPA|main}} often corresponds to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in RP. Only New York City English and New England English distinguish between the two, and with an unrounded Template:Sc2 vowel. Modern-day New York City English also has rounded {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for reflexes of Template:Sc2, which ironically, came from an unrounded vowel.
• The cot–caught merger usually occurs in addition to the father–bother merger. This applies to almost all of Canadian English and many varieties of American English. The result is usually {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, the Template:Sc2 vowel, which is used for Template:Sc2 as well. Some dialects will have {{#invoke:IPA|main}} as the merged vowel, not {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; these include Standard Canadian English or Pittsburgh English.
  • The caught-cot merger without the father–bother merger is found in Scottish English and most of New England English.
• In loanwords and names, the open central unrounded vowel Template:IPAblink in a source language is regularly approximated with {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in North America and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in RP. However, in the case of mid back rounded vowels spelled Template:Angbr, the usual North American approximation is {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, not {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (in RP, it can be either {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). However, when the vowel is both stressed and word-final, the only possibilities in RP are {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the first case and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in the latter case, mirroring GA.

For the sake of simplicity, instances of an unrounded Template:Sc2 vowel (phonetically Template:IPAblink) that do not merge with Template:Sc2/Template:Sc2 are excluded from the table below. For this reason, the traditional Norfolk dialect is included but the contemporary one, nor the Cardiff dialect, are not.

main}} in native words and non-recent loanwords

Variety	Rhotic	Mergers and splits									Possible spellings
		Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Small	Template:Angbr	Template:Angbr	Template:AngbrTemplate:Efn	Template:Angbr	Template:Angbr	Template:Angbr
Australian English	no	no	no	no	no	yes	no	no	no	partialTemplate:Efn	yes	yes	no	no	no	no
Canadian English	yes	no	no	yes	variable	Template:N/A	Template:N/A	Template:N/A	no	no	yes	no	yes	yes	yes	no
General American	yes	no	no	variable	yes	Template:N/A	Template:N/A	yes	no	no	yes	no	variable	variable	yes	no
Hiberno-English	yes	no	no	variable	no	Template:N/A	Template:N/A	variable	variable	variable	variable	no	no	no	no	no
New York City English	variable	possible	no	no	variable	variable	variable	yes	no	no	yes	no	no	no	variable	no
New Zealand English	mostly no	no	no	no	no	mostly yes	no	no	no	yes	yes	mostly yes	no	no	no	no
Northeastern New England English	variable	no	no	yes	no	variable	no	Template:N/A	no	no	yes	yes	no	no	no	no
Northern England English	no	no	no	no	no	yes	no	no	no	no	yes	yes	no	no	no	no
Philadelphia English	yes	possible	no	no	yes	Template:N/A	Template:N/A	yes	no	no	yes	no	no	no	yes	no
Received Pronunciation	no	no	no	no	no	yes	no	no	no	yes	yes	yes	no	no	no	no
Scottish English	yes	no	no	mostly yes	no	Template:N/A	Template:N/A	Template:N/A (mostly)	mostly yes	mostly no	mostly no	no	no	no	no	no
South African English	mostly no	no	no	no	no	mostly yes	no	variable	no	yes	yes	mostly yes	no	no	no	no
Southern American English	variable	mostly no	mostly no	variable	yes	variable	variable	yes	no	no	yes	variable	variable	variable	yes	mostly no
Traditional Norfolk dialect	no	variable	no	no	variable	yes	variable	yes	no	yes	yes	yes	no	no	yes	no
Welsh English	mostly no	no	no	no	no	mostly yes	no	no	no	variable	yes	yes	no	no	no	no

Fronted {{#invoke:IPA|main}}

Template:See also In many dialects of English, the vowel {{#invoke:IPA|main}} has undergone fronting. The exact phonetic value varies. Dialects with the fronted {{#invoke:IPA|main}} include Received Pronunciation; Southern, Midland, and Mid-Atlantic American English; and Australian English. This fronting does not generally occur before {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, a relatively retracted consonant.

Table

Stages leading to some of the open back vowels of General American, summarized from Wells (1982), with the cot–caught merger added

	law ball taught caught	off cloth loss	lot stop rob cot bother	father palm calm
Middle English	main}}	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}		main}}
Quality change	main}}	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}		main}}
Thought-monophthonging	main}}	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}		main}}
Pre-fricative lengthening	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
A-lengthening	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
Quality change	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
Lot-unrounding	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
Loss of distinctive length	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
Cloth–thought merger	main}}	main}}	main}}	main}}
General American output	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}		{{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Cot–caught merger	{{#invoke:IPA|main}}

See also

• Phonological history of English
• Phonological history of English vowels

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Accents of English