Template:Short description Template:Redirect {{#invoke:Hatnote|hatnote}} Template:For {{SAFESUBST:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox archaeological culture
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The SakaTemplate:Efn were a group of nomadic Eastern Iranian peoples who lived in the Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin from the 9th century BC to the 5th century AD.<ref name="B_68">Template:Harvnb "Modern scholars have mostly used the name Saka to refer specifically to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin"</ref><ref name="D_37">Template:Harvnb "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."</ref> The Saka were closely related to the Scythians, and both groups formed part of the wider Scythian cultures.<ref>Template:Harvnb: "During the first millennium BC, nomadic people spread over the Eurasian Steppe from the Altai Mountains over the northern Black Sea area as far as the Carpathian Basin... Greek and Persian historians of the 1st millennium BCE chronicle the existence of the Massagetae and Sauromatians, and later, the Sarmatians and Sacae: cultures possessing artefacts similar to those found in classical Scythian monuments, such as weapons, horse harnesses and a distinctive 'Animal Style' artistic tradition. Accordingly, these groups are often assigned to the Scythian culture..."</ref> However, they are distinguished from the Scythians by their specific geographical and cultural traits.<ref name="D_37" /><ref name="SK"/> The Saka languages formed part of the Scythian phylum, a branch of the Eastern Iranian languages.
Derived from the earlier Andronovo, Sintashta and Srubnaya cultures, the Saka were later influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Culture and Iron Age East Asian genetic influx.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> The ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka," "Scythian," and "Cimmerian" for all the steppe nomads. However, the name "Saka" is used specifically for the ancient nomads of the eastern steppe, while "Scythian" is used for the related group of nomads living in the western steppe.<ref name="D_37"/><ref name="DM_156">Template:Harvnb: "Horse-riding nomadism has been referred to as the culture of 'Early Nomads'. This term encompasses different ethnic groups (such as Scythians, Saka, Massagetae, and Yuezhi)..."</ref><ref name="DiakonoffNomenclature">Template:Harvnb: the Persians called "Saka" all the northern nomads, just as the Greeks called them "Scythians", and the Babylonians "Cimmerians".</ref>
Prominent archaeological remains of the Sakas include Arzhan,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Tunnug,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> the Pazyryk burials,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> the Issyk kurgan, Saka Kurgan tombs,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> the Barrows of Tasmola<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and possibly Tillya Tepe. In the 2nd century BC, many Sakas were driven by the Yuezhi from the steppe into Sogdia and Bactria and then to the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, where they were known as the Indo-Scythians.<ref name="Benjamin">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="ChineseHistory">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Beckwith85">Template:Harvnb "The Saka, or Śaka, people then began their long migration that ended with their conquest of northern India, where they are also known as the Indo-Scythians."</ref> Other Sakas invaded the Parthian Empire, eventually settling in Sistan, while others may have migrated to the Dian Kingdom in Yunnan, China. In the Tarim Basin and Taklamakan Desert of today's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, they settled in Khotan, Yarkand, Kashgar and other places.<ref name="Sinor_173" />
NameEdit
EtymologyEdit
Linguist Oswald Szemerényi studied synonyms of various origins for Scythian and differentiated the following terms: Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, and Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name="Szemerényi">Template:Cite book</ref>
Derived from an Iranian verbal root Template:Transliteration, "go, roam" (related to "seek") and thus meaning "nomad" was the term Template:Transliteration, from which came the names:
- Old Persian: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, used by the ancient Persians to designate all nomads of the Eurasian steppe, including the Pontic Scythians<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Ancient Greek: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration
- Latin: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}
- Sanskrit: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration
- Old Chinese: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
From the Indo-European root {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, meaning "propel, shoot" (and from which was also derived the English word [[:wikt:shoot|Template:Transliteration]]), of which {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is the zero-grade form, was descended the Scythians' self-name reconstructed by Szemerényi as Template:Transliteration (roughly "archer"). From this were descended the following exonyms:
- Akkadian: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, used by the Assyrians
- Old Persian: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration
- Ancient Greek: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration (plural {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration), used by the Ancient Greeks<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- The Old Armenian: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration is based on itacistic Greek
A late Scythian sound change from {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} resulted in the evolution of Template:Transliteration into Template:Transliteration. From this was derived the Greek word Template:Transliteration {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which, according to Herodotus, was the self-designation of the Royal Scythians.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Other sound changes have produced [[Sogdia|Template:Transliteration]] {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.<ref name="Szemerényi" />
Although the Scythians, Saka and Cimmerians were closely related nomadic Iranic peoples, and the ancient Babylonians, ancient Persians and ancient Greeks respectively used the names "Cimmerian," "Saka," and "Scythian" for all the steppe nomads, and early modern historians such as Edward Gibbon used the term Scythian to refer to a variety of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples across the Eurasian Steppe,
- the name "Scythian" in contemporary modern scholarship generally refers to the nomadic Iranic people who from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC dominated the steppe and forest-steppe zones to the north of the Black Sea, Crimea, the Kuban valley, as well as the Taman and Kerch peninsulas,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="nomenclature3">* Template:Harvnb: "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."
- Template:Harvnb: "The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'."
- Template:Harvnb: "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes – the Scythians and Sarmatians [...] "[I]t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West."
- Template:Harvnb: "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin who flourished in the steppe lands north of the Black Sea during the 7th–4th centuries BC (Figure 1). For related groups in Central Asia and India, see [...]"
- Template:Harvnb: "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock [...] The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians [...] [T]he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe [...] The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths," the Sauromatians, were also Iranian; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga."
- Template:Harvnb: "The name 'Scythian' is met in the classical authors and has been taken to refer to an ethnic group or people, also mentioned in Near Eastern texts, who inhabited the northern Black Sea region."
- Template:Harvnb: "Ordinary Greek (and later Latin) usage could designate as Scythian any northern barbarian from the general area of the Eurasian steppe, the virtually treeless corridor of drought-resistant perennial grassland extending from the Danube to Manchuria. Herodotus seeks greater precision, and this essay is focussed on his Scythians, who belong to the North Pontic steppe [...] These true Scyths seems to be those whom he calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony [...] apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock [...]"
- Template:Harvnb: "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C [...] They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language [...]"
- Template:Harvnb: "The first historical steppe nomads, the Scythians, inhabited the steppe north of the Black Sea from about the eight century B.C."
- {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- while the name "Saka" is used specifically for their eastern members who inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin;<ref name="nomenclature3"/><ref name="SK">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
IdentificationEdit
The name Template:Transliteration was used by the ancient Persian to refer to all the Iranian nomadic tribes living to the north of their empire, including both those who lived between the Caspian Sea and the Hungry steppe, and those who lived to the north of the Danube and the Black Sea. The Assyrians meanwhile called these nomads the Ishkuzai (Akkadian: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration<ref name="Parpola">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>) or Askuzai (Akkadian: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref name="Parpola"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>), and the Ancient Greeks called them Skuthai (Ancient Greek: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration).Template:Sfn
The Achaemenid inscriptions initially listed a single group of Template:Transliteration. However, following Darius I's campaign of 520 to 518 BC against the Asian nomads, they were differentiated into two groups, both living in Central Asia to the east of the Caspian Sea:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
- the [[Massagetae|Template:Transliteration]] ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) – "Template:Transliteration who wear pointed caps," who were also known as the Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Harvnb: "Apparently the Dahai represented an entity not identical with the other better known groups of the Sakai, i.e. the Sakai (Sakā) tigrakhaudā (Massagetai, roaming in Turkmenistan), and Sakai (Sakā) Haumavargā (in Transoxania and beyond the Syr Daryā)."</ref>
- the [[Amyrgians|Template:Transliteration]] ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) – interpreted as "Template:Transliteration who lay hauma (around the fire)",<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref> which can be interpreted as "Saka who revere hauma."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
A third name was added after the Darius's campaign north of the Danube:Template:Sfn
- the [[Scythians|Template:Transliteration]] ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) – "the Template:Transliteration who live beyond the (Black) Sea," who were the Pontic Scythians of the East European steppes
An additional term is found in two inscriptions elsewhere:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
- the Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) – "Saka who are beyond Sogdia", a term was used by Darius for the people who formed the north-eastern limits of his empire at the opposite end to the satrapy of Kush (the Ethiopians).Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> These Template:Transliteration have been suggested to have been the same people as the Template:TransliterationTemplate:Sfn
Moreover, Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions mention two groups of Saka:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
- the Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) – "Template:Transliteration of the Marshes"
- the Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) – "Template:Transliteration of the Land"
The scholar David Bivar had tentatively identified the Template:Transliteration with the Template:Transliteration,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and John Manuel Cook had tentatively identified the Template:Transliteration with the Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn More recently, the scholar Rüdiger Schmitt has suggested that the Template:Transliteration and the Template:Transliteration might have collectively designated the Template:Transliteration/Massagetae.Template:Sfn
The Achaemenid king Xerxes I listed the Saka coupled with the [[Dahae|Template:Transliteration]] ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) people of Central Asia,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn who might possibly have been identical with the Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Modern terminologyEdit
Template:See also Although the ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka," "Scythian," and "Cimmerian" for all the steppe nomads, modern scholars now use the term Saka to refer specifically to Iranian peoples who inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin;<ref name="B_68" /><ref name="eolss">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="D_37"/><ref name="DiakonoffNomenclature"/> and while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as culturally Scythian, they may have differed ethnically from the Scythians proper, to whom the Cimmerians were related, and who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref name="Cimmerians">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
LocationEdit
Template:Continental Asia in 325 BCE The Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration both lived in the steppe and highland areas located in northern Central Asia and to the east of the Caspian Sea.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The Template:Transliteration/Massagetae more specifically lived around ChorasmiaTemplate:Sfn and in the lowlands of Central Asia located to the east of the Caspian Sea and the south-east of the Aral Sea, in the Kyzylkum Desert and the Ustyurt Plateau, most especially between the Araxes and Iaxartes rivers.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Template:Transliteration/Massagetae could also be found in the Caspian Steppe.Template:Sfn The imprecise description of where the Massagetae lived by ancient authors has however led modern scholars to ascribe to them various locations, such as the Oxus delta, the Iaxartes delta, between the Caspian and Aral seas or further to the north or northeast, but without basing these suggestions on any conclusive arguments.Template:Sfn Other locations assigned to the Massagetae include the area corresponding to modern-day Turkmenistan.Template:Sfn
The Template:Transliteration lived around the Pamir Mountains and the Ferghana Valley.Template:Sfn
The Template:Transliteration, who may have been identical with the Template:Transliteration, lived on the north-east border of the Achaemenid Empire on the Iaxartes river.Template:Sfn
Some other Saka groups lived to the east of the Pamir Mountains and to the north of the Iaxartes river,Template:Sfn as well as in the regions corresponding to modern-day Qirghizia, Tian Shan, Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Kazakhstan.Template:Sfn
The Template:Transliteration, that is the Saka who were in contact with the Chinese, inhabited the Ili and Chu valleys of modern Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, which was called the "land of the Template:Transliteration", i.e. "land of the Saka", in the Book of Han.<ref name="yu 2010 p13" />
HistoryEdit
OriginsEdit
Template:Multiple image The Scythian/Saka cultures emerged on the Eurasian Steppe at the dawn of the Iron Age in the early 1st millennium BC. Their origins has long been a source of debate among archaeologists.Template:Sfn The Pontic–Caspian steppe was initially thought to have been their place of origin, until the Soviet archaeologist Aleksey Terenozhkin suggested a Central Asian origin.Template:Sfn<ref name="Krzewińska 2018">Template:Harvnb</ref>
Archaeological evidence now tends to suggest that the origins of Scythian culture, characterized by its kurgans (a type of burial mound) and its Animal style of the 1st millennium BC, are to be found among Eastern Scythians rather than their Western counterparts: eastern kurgans are older than western ones (such as the Altai kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva), and elements of the Animal style are first attested in areas of the Yenisei river and modern-day China in the 10th century BC.<ref name="ADD2">Template:Harvnb "The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts. Additionally, elements of the characteristic 'Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BCE were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence of Scythian culture in the East."</ref> Genetic evidence corroborates archaeological findings, suggesting an initial eastwards expansion of Western Steppe Herders towards the Altai region and Western Mongolia, spreading Iranian languages, and subsequent contact episodes with local Siberian and Eastern Asian populations, giving rise to the initial (Eastern) Scythian material cultures (Saka). It was however also found that the various later Scythian sub-groups of the Eurasian Steppe had local origins; different Scythian groups arose locally through cultural adaption, rather than via migration patterns from East-to-West or West-to-East.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Järve">Template:Harvnb. "The Early Iron Age nomadic Scythians have been described as a confederation of tribes of different origins, based on ancient DNA evidence [1, 2, 3]. All samples of this study also possessed at least one additional eastern component, one of which was nearly at 100% in modern Nganasans (orange) and the other in modern Han Chinese (yellow; Figure S2). The eastern components were present in variable proportions in the samples of this study."</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=":0" />
The Sakas spoke a language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. The Pazyryk burials of the Pazyryk culture in the Ukok Plateau in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC are thought to be of Saka chieftains.<ref name="LH_443">Template:Harvnb "The rich kurgan burials in Pazyryk, Siberia probably were those of Saka chieftains"</ref><ref name="K_94">Template:Harvnb "Analysis of the clothing, which has analogies in the complex of Saka clothes, particularly in Pazyryk, led Wang Binghua (1987, 42) to the conclusion that they are related to the Saka Culture."</ref><ref name="K_103">Template:Harvnb "The dress of Iranian-speaking Saka and Scythians is easily reconstructed on the basis of... numerous archaeological discoveries from the Ukraine to the Altai, particularly at Issyk in Kazakhstan... at Pazyryk... and Ak-Alakha"</ref> These burials show striking similarities with the earlier Tarim mummies at Gumugou.<ref name="K_94" /> The Issyk kurgan of south-eastern Kazakhstan,<ref name="K_103" /> and the Ordos culture of the Ordos Plateau has also been connected with the Saka.Template:Sfn It has been suggested that the ruling elite of the Xiongnu was of Saka origin, or at least significantly influenced by their Eastern Iranian neighbours.<ref>Template:Harvnb: "Their royal tribes and kings (shan-yii) bore Iranian names and all the Hsiung-nu words noted by the Chinese can be explained from an Iranian language of Saka type. It is therefore clear that the majority of Hsiung-nu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language."</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Some scholars contend that in the 8th century BC, a Saka raid from the Altai may be "connected" with a raid on Zhou China.<ref name="EBThe_Steppe">Template:Cite encyclopedia
Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
Early historyEdit
The Saka are attested in historical and archaeological records dating to around the 8th century BC.<ref name="mallory">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The Saka tribe of the Massagetae/Template:Transliteration rose to power in the 8th to 7th centuries BC, when they migrated from the east into Central Asia,Template:Sfn from where they expelled the Scythians, another nomadic Iranian tribe to whom they were closely related, after which they came to occupy large areas of the region beginning in the 6th century BC.Template:Sfn The Massagetae forcing the Early Scythians to the west across the Araxes river and into the Caucasian and Pontic steppes started a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe,Template:Sfn following which the Scythians displaced the Cimmerians and the Agathyrsi, who were also nomadic Iranian peoples closely related to the Massagetae and the Scythians, conquered their territories,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and invaded Western Asia, where their presence had an important role in the history of the ancient civilisations of Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Egypt, and Iran.Template:Sfn
During the 7th century BC itself, Saka presence started appearing in the Tarim Basin region.<ref name="mallory" />
According to the ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, the Parthians rebelled against the Medes during the reign of Cyaxares, after which the Parthians put their country and capital city under the protection of the Sakas. This was followed by a long war opposing the Medes to the Saka, the latter of whom were led by the queen Zarinaea. At the end of this war, the Parthians accepted Median rule, and the Saka and the Medes made peace.Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
According to the Greek historian Ctesias, once the Persian Achaemenid Empire's founder, Cyrus, had overthrown his grandfather the Median king Astyages, the Bactrians accepted him as the heir of Astyages and submitted to him, after which he founded the city of Cyropolis on the Iaxartes river as well as seven fortresses to protect the northern frontier of his empire against the Saka. Cyrus then attacked the Template:Transliteration, initially defeated them and captured their king, Amorges. After this, Amorges's queen, Sparethra, defeated Cyrus with a large army of both men and women warriors and captured Parmises, the brother-in-law of Cyrus and the brother of his wife Amytis, as well as Parmises's three sons, whom Sparethra exchanged in return for her husband, after which Cyrus and Amorges became allies, and Amorges helped Cyrus conquer Lydia.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="SchmittAmorges">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Cyrus, accompanied by the Template:Transliteration of his ally Amorges, later carried out a campaign against the Massagetae/Template:Transliteration in 530 BC.Template:Sfn According to Herodotus, Cyrus captured a Massagetaean camp by ruse, after which the Massagetae queen Tomyris led the tribe's main force against the Persians, defeated them, and placed the severed head of Cyrus in a sack full of blood. Some versions of the records of the death of Cyrus named the Derbices, rather than the Massagetae, as the tribe against whom Cyrus died in battle, because the Derbices were a member tribe of the Massagetae confederation or identical with the whole of the Massagetae.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn After Cyrus had been mortally wounded by the Derbices/Massagetae, Amorges and his Template:Transliteration army helped the Persian soldiers defeat them. Cyrus told his sons to respect their own mother as well as Amorges above everyone else before dying.<ref name="SchmittAmorges"/>
Possibly shortly before the 520s BC, the Saka expanded into the valleys of the Ili and Chu in eastern Central Asia.<ref name="yu 2010 p13" /> Around 30 Saka tombs in the form of kurgans (burial mounds) have also been found in the Tian Shan area dated to between 550 and 250 BC.<ref name="mallory" />
Darius I waged wars against the eastern Sakas during a campaign of 520 to 518 BC where, according to his inscription at Behistun, he conquered the Massagetae/Template:Transliteration, captured their king Skunxa, and replaced him with a ruler who was loyal to Achaemenid rule.Template:Sfn<ref name="SchmittAmorges"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The territories of the Saka were absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire as part of Chorasmia that included much of the territory between the Oxus and the Iaxartes rivers,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and the Saka then supplied the Achaemenid army with a large number of mounted bowmen.<ref name="D_44">Template:Harvnb</ref> According to Polyaenus, Darius fought against three armies led by three kings, respectively named Sacesphares, Amorges or Homarges, and Thamyris, with Polyaenus's account being based on accurate Persian historical records.<ref name="SchmittAmorges"/>Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> After Darius's administrative reforms of the Achaemenid Empire, the Template:Transliteration were included within the same tax district as the Medes.Template:Sfn
During the period of Achaemenid rule, Central Asia was in contact with Saka populations who were themselves in contact with China.<ref>Template:Harvnb: Besides trade and exchange within the borders of the Achaemenid empire, it seems that the part of Central Asua under Achaemenid rule was in contact with the Saka tribes who were in touch with China (see the finds of Template:Transliteration II and V of Pazyryk and of Xinyuan and Alagou in Xinjiang).</ref>
After Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire, the Saka resisted his incursions into Central Asia.<ref name="eolss" />
At least by the late 2nd century BC, the Sakas had founded states in the Tarim Basin.<ref name="Sinor_173">Template:Harvnb</ref>
Kingdoms in the Tarim BasinEdit
Kingdom of KhotanEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
The Kingdom of Khotan was a Saka city state on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. As a consequence of the Han–Xiongnu War spanning from 133 BC to 89 AD, the Tarim Basin (now Xinjiang, Northwest China), including Khotan and Kashgar, fell under Han Chinese influence, beginning with the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC).<ref>Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 197–198. Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 410–411. Template:ISBN.</ref>
Obv: Kharosthi legend, "Of the great king of kings, king of Khotan, Gurgamoya.
Rev: Chinese legend: "Twenty-four grain copper coin". British Museum
Archaeological evidence and documents from Khotan and other sites in the Tarim Basin provided information on the language spoken by the Saka.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The official language of Khotan was initially Gandhari Prakrit written in Kharosthi, and coins from Khotan dated to the 1st century bear dual inscriptions in Chinese and Gandhari Prakrit, indicating links of Khotan to both India and China.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265">Template:Cite book</ref> Surviving documents however suggest that an Iranian language was used by the people of the kingdom for a long time. Third-century AD documents in Prakrit from nearby Shanshan record the title for the king of Khotan as hinajha (i.e. "generalissimo"), a distinctively Iranian-based word equivalent to the Sanskrit title senapati, yet nearly identical to the Khotanese Saka hīnāysa attested in later Khotanese documents.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" /> This, along with the fact that the king's recorded regnal periods were given as the Khotanese kṣuṇa, "implies an established connection between the Iranian inhabitants and the royal power," according to the Professor of Iranian Studies Ronald E. Emmerick.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" /> He contended that Khotanese-Saka-language royal rescripts of Khotan dated to the 10th century "makes it likely that the ruler of Khotan was a speaker of Iranian."<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" /> Furthermore, he argued that the early form of the name of Khotan, hvatana, is connected semantically with the name Saka.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" />
The region once again came under Chinese suzerainty with the campaigns of conquest by Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649).<ref>Xue, Zongzheng (薛宗正). (1992). History of the Turks (突厥史). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, p. 596-598. Template:ISBN; OCLC 28622013</ref> From the late eighth to ninth centuries, the region changed hands between the rival Tang and Tibetan Empires.<ref>Beckwith, Christopher. (1987). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp 36, 146. Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Wechsler, Howard J.; Twitchett, Dennis C. (1979). Denis C. Twitchett; John K. Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–227. Template:ISBN.</ref> However, by the early 11th century the region fell to the Muslim Turkic peoples of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, which led to both the Turkification of the region as well as its conversion from Buddhism to Islam.
Later Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts to Buddhist literature, have been found in Khotan and Tumshuq (northeast of Kashgar).Template:Sfn Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in the Dunhuang manuscripts.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Although the ancient Chinese had called Khotan Yutian (于闐), another more native Iranian name occasionally used was Jusadanna (瞿薩旦那), derived from Indo-Iranian Gostan and Gostana, the names of the town and region around it, respectively.<ref name="theobald 2011 yutian">Ulrich Theobald. (16 October 2011). "City-states Along the Silk Road." ChinaKnowledge.de. Accessed 2 September 2016.</ref>
Shule KingdomEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Much like the neighboring people of the Kingdom of Khotan, the people of Kashgar, the capital of Shule, spoke Saka, one of the Eastern Iranian languages.<ref>Xavier Tremblay, "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century", in The Spread of Buddhism, eds Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2007, p. 77.</ref> According to the Book of Han, the Saka split and formed several states in the region. These Saka states may include two states to the northwest of Kashgar, Tumshuq to its northeast, and Tushkurgan south in the Pamirs.<ref name="DaniLitvinsky1996" /> Kashgar also conquered other states such as Yarkand and Kucha during the Han dynasty, but in its later history, Kashgar was controlled by various empires, including Tang China,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Whitfield 2004, p. 47.</ref><ref name="wechsler">Wechsler, Howard J.; Twitchett, Dennis C. (1979). Denis C. Twitchett; John K. Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–228. Template:ISBN.</ref> before it became part of the Turkic Kara-Khanid Khanate in the 10th century. In the 11th century, according to Mahmud al-Kashgari, some non-Turkic languages like Kanchaki and Sogdian were still used in some areas in the vicinity of Kashgar,<ref name="LeviSela2010 2">Template:Cite book</ref> and Kanchaki is thought to belong to the Saka language group.<ref name="DaniLitvinsky1996">Template:Cite book</ref> It is believed that the Tarim Basin was linguistically Turkified before the 11th century ended.<ref name="Akiner2013">Template:Cite book</ref>
Southern migrationsEdit
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The Saka were pushed out of the Ili and Chu River valleys by the Yuezhi.<ref name="B_290">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Benjamin" /><ref name="ChineseHistory" /> An account of the movement of these people is given in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian. The Yuehzhi, who originally lived between Tängri Tagh (Tian Shan) and Dunhuang of Gansu, China,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> were assaulted and forced to flee from the Hexi Corridor of Gansu by the forces of the Xiongnu ruler Modu Chanyu, who conquered the area in 177–176 BC.<ref>Torday, Laszlo. (1997). Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham: The Durham Academic Press, pp. 80–81, Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – A.D. 220, 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–388, 391, Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Chang, Chun-shu. (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 BC – AD 157. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 5–8 Template:ISBN.</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> In turn the Yuehzhi were responsible for attacking and pushing the Sai (i.e. Saka) west into Sogdiana, where, between 140 and 130 BC, the latter crossed the Syr Darya into Bactria. The Saka also moved southwards toward the Pamirs and northern India, where they settled in Kashmir, and eastward, to settle in some of the oasis-states of Tarim Basin sites, like Yanqi (焉耆, Karasahr) and Qiuci (龜茲, Kucha).<ref>Yu Taishan (June 2010), "The Earliest Tocharians in China" in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp. 13–14, 21–22.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Yuehzhi, themselves under attacks from another nomadic tribe, the Wusun, in 133–132 BC, moved, again, from the Ili and Chu valleys, and occupied the country of Daxia, (大夏, "Bactria").<ref name="yu 2010 p13">Template:Harvnb: "The Daxia 大夏 people in the valley of the Amu Darya came from the valleys of the rivers Ili and Chu. From the Template:Transliteration of Strabo one can infer that the four tribes of the Asii and others came from these valleys (the so-called "land of the Sai 塞" in the Template:Transliteration 漢書, ch. 96A). "</ref><ref>Bernard, P. (1994). "The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia". In Harmatta, János. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 96–126. Template:ISBN.</ref>
The ancient Greco-Roman geographer Strabo noted that the four tribes that took down the Bactrians in the Greek and Roman account – the Asioi, Pasianoi, Tokharoi and Sakaraulai – came from land north of the Syr Darya where the Ili and Chu valleys are located.<ref name=Rene>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="yu 2010 p13" /> Identification of these four tribes varies, but Sakaraulai may indicate an ancient Saka tribe, the Tokharoi is possibly the Yuezhi, and while the Asioi had been proposed to be groups such as the Wusun or Alans.<ref name=Rene /><ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
René Grousset wrote of the migration of the Saka: "the Saka, under pressure from the Yueh-chih [Yuezhi], overran Sogdiana and then Bactria, there taking the place of the Greeks." Then, "Thrust back in the south by the Yueh-chih," the Saka occupied "the Saka country, Sakastana, whence the modern Persian Seistan."<ref name=Rene /> Some of the Saka fleeing the Yuezhi attacked the Parthian Empire, where they defeated and killed the kings Phraates II and Artabanus.<ref name="B_290" /> These Sakas were eventually settled by Mithridates II in what become known as Sakastan.<ref name="B_290" /> According to Harold Walter Bailey, the territory of Drangiana (now in Afghanistan and Pakistan) became known as "Land of the Sakas", and was called Sakastāna in the Persian language of contemporary Iran, in Armenian as Sakastan, with similar equivalents in Pahlavi, Greek, Sogdian, Syriac, Arabic, and the Middle Persian tongue used in Turfan, Xinjiang, China.Template:Sfn This is attested in a contemporary Kharosthi inscription found on the Mathura lion capital belonging to the Saka kingdom of the Indo-Scythians (200 BC – 400 AD) in North India,Template:Sfn roughly the same time the Chinese record that the Saka had invaded and settled the country of Jibin 罽賓 (i.e. Kashmir, of modern-day India and Pakistan).<ref name="theobald 2011 saka">Ulrich Theobald. (26 November 2011). "Chinese History – Sai 塞 The Saka People or Soghdians." ChinaKnowledge.de. Accessed 2 September 2016.</ref>
Iaroslav Lebedynsky and Victor H. Mair speculate that some Sakas may also have migrated to the area of Yunnan in southern China following their expulsion by the Yuezhi. Excavations of the prehistoric art of the Dian Kingdom of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing.Template:Sfn The scenes depicted on these drums sometimes represent these horsemen practising hunting. Animal scenes of felines attacking oxen are also at times reminiscent of Scythian art both in theme and in composition.Template:Sfn Migrations of the 2nd and 1st century BC have left traces in Sogdia and Bactria, but they cannot firmly be attributed to the Saka, similarly with the sites of Sirkap and Taxila in ancient India. The rich graves at Tillya Tepe in Afghanistan are seen as part of a population affected by the Saka.Template:Sfn
The Shakya clan of India, to which Gautama Buddha, called Śākyamuni "Sage of the Shakyas", belonged, were also likely Sakas, as Michael Witzel<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Christopher I. Beckwith<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> have alleged. The scholar Bryan Levman however criticised this hypothesis for resting on slim to no evidence, and maintains that the Shakyas were a population native to the north-east Gangetic plain who were unrelated to Iranic Sakas.<ref>Template:Cite journal "The evidence for this final wave is however, very slim and there is no evidence for it in the Vedic texts; for their western origin, Witzel relies on a reference in Pāṇini (4.2.131, madravṛjyoḥ) to the Vṛjjis in dual relation with the Madras who are from the northwest, and to the Mallas in the Jaiminīya Brāhamaṇa (§198) as arising from the dust of Rajasthan. Neither the Sakyas nor any of the other eastern tribes are mentioned, and of course there is no proof that any of these are Indo-Aryan groups. I view the Sakyas and the later Śakas as two separate groups, the former being aboriginal."</ref>
Indo-ScythiansEdit
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The region in modern Afghanistan and Iran where the Saka moved to became known as "land of the Saka" or Sakastan.Template:Sfn This is attested in a contemporary Kharosthi inscription found on the Mathura lion capital belonging to the Saka kingdom of the Indo-Scythians (200 BC – 400 AD) in northern India,Template:Sfn roughly the same time the Chinese record that the Saka had invaded and settled the country of Jibin 罽賓 (i.e. Kashmir, of modern-day India and Pakistan).<ref name="theobald 2011 saka" /> In the Persian language of contemporary Iran the territory of Drangiana was called Sakastāna, in Armenian as Sakastan, with similar equivalents in Pahlavi, Greek, Sogdian, Syriac, Arabic, and the Middle Persian tongue used in Turfan, Xinjiang, China.Template:Sfn The Sakas also captured Gandhara and Taxila, and migrated to North India.<ref name="Sulimirski 1970 113–114">Template:Cite book</ref> The most famous Indo-Scythian king was Maues.<ref name="I_Kushan">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> An Indo-Scythian kingdom was established in Mathura (200 BC – 400 AD).Template:Sfn<ref name="Beckwith85" /> Weer Rajendra Rishi, an Indian linguist, identified linguistic affinities between Indian and Central Asian languages, which further lends credence to the possibility of historical Sakan influence in North India.<ref name="Sulimirski 1970 113–114" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to historian Michael Mitchiner, the Abhira tribe were a Saka people cited in the Gunda inscription of the Western Satrap Rudrasimha I dated to AD 181.<ref name="Mitchiner1978">Template:Cite book</ref>
- Later Saka polities
- Map of the Indo-Scythians.png
The Indo-Scythians ruled in northwestern South Asia from circa 100 BC
- Map of the Northern Satraps (Northern Sakas).jpg
The Northern Satraps ruled in northern India until their replacement by the Kushans circa 150 AD
- Map of the Western Satraps.png
The Western Satraps was a Saka dynasty which ruled in western India until circa 400 AD
HistoriographyEdit
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Persians referred to all northern nomads as Sakas. Herodotus (IV.64) describes them as Scythians, although they figure under a different name:
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The Sacae, or Scyths, were clad in trousers, and had on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point. They bore the bow of their country and the dagger; besides which they carried the battle-axe, or sagaris. They were in truth Amyrgian (Western) Scythians, but the Persians called them Sacae, since that is the name which they gave to all Scythians.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
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StraboEdit
In the 1st century BC, the Greek-Roman geographer Strabo gave an extensive description of the peoples of the eastern steppe, whom he located in Central Asia beyond Bactria and Sogdiana.<ref name="Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Strabo went on to list the names of the various tribes he believed to be "Scythian",<ref name="Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1" /> and in so doing almost certainly conflated them with unrelated tribes of eastern Central Asia. These tribes included the Saka.
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Now the greater part of the Scythians, beginning at the Caspian Sea, are called Däae, but those who are situated more to the east than these are named Massagetae and Sacae, whereas all the rest are given the general name of Scythians, though each people is given a separate name of its own. They are all for the most part nomads. But the best known of the nomads are those who took away Bactriana from the Greeks, I mean the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, and Sacarauli, who originally came from the country on the other side of the Iaxartes River that adjoins that of the Sacae and the Sogdiani and was occupied by the Sacae. And as for the Däae, some of them are called Aparni, some Xanthii, and some Pissuri. Now of these the Aparni are situated closest to Hyrcania and the part of the sea that borders on it, but the remainder extend even as far as the country that stretches parallel to Aria.
Between them and Hyrcania and Parthia and extending as far as the Arians is a great waterless desert, which they traversed by long marches and then overran Hyrcania, Nesaea, and the plains of the Parthians. And these people agreed to pay tribute, and the tribute was to allow the invaders at certain appointed times to overrun the country and carry off booty. But when the invaders overran their country more than the agreement allowed, war ensued, and in turn their quarrels were composed and new wars were begun. Such is the life of the other nomads also, who are always attacking their neighbors and then in turn settling their differences.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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- (Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1; transl. 1903 by H. C. Hamilton & W. Falconer.)<ref name="Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1" />
Indian sourcesEdit
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The Sakas receive numerous mentions in Indian texts, including the Purāṇas, the Manusmṛiti, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata, and the Mahābhāṣya of Patanjali.
LanguageEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:Multiple image Modern scholarly consensus is that the Eastern Iranian language, ancestral to the Pamir languages in Central Asia and the medieval Saka language of Xinjiang, was one of the Scythian languages.<ref>Kuz'mina, Elena E. (2007). The Origin of the Indo Iranians. Edited by J.P. Mallory. Leiden, Boston: Brill, pp 381–382. Template:ISBN.</ref> Evidence of the Middle Iranian "Scytho-Khotanese" language survives in Northwest China, where Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts to Buddhist texts, have been found primarily in Khotan and Tumshuq (northeast of Kashgar).Template:Sfn They largely predate the Islamization of Xinjiang under the Turkic-speaking Kara-Khanid Khanate.Template:Sfn Similar documents, the Dunhuang manuscripts, were discovered written in the Khotanese Saka language and date mostly from the tenth century.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Attestations of the Saka language show that it was an Eastern Iranian language. The linguistic heartland of Saka was the Kingdom of Khotan, which had two varieties, corresponding to the major settlements at Khotan (now called Hotan) and Tumshuq (now titled Tumxuk).<ref>Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press, 2004. pg 197</ref><ref>Edward A Allworth,Central Asia: A Historical Overview, Duke University Press, 1994. pp 86.</ref> Tumshuqese and Khotanese varieties of Saka contain many borrowings from the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, but also share features with the modern Eastern Iranian languages Wakhi and Pashto.<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref>
The Issyk inscription, a short fragment on a silver cup found in the Issyk kurgan in Kazakhstan is believed to be the earliest example of Saka, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language.<ref name="CBAUMER">Template:Cite book</ref> The inscription is in a variant of Kharosthi. Harmatta suggests that the inscriptions are a variant of the Kharosthi language, while Christopher Baumer has said that they closely resemble the Old Turkic runic alphabet. From Khotanese Saka, Harmatta translates the inscription as: "The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, then added cooked fresh butter on".Template:Sfn
Linguistic evidence suggest the Wakhi language is descended from Saka languages.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book "In addition to the continuation of Middle Persian in New Persian, three small modern languages show significant grammatical and lexical reflexes of other documented Middle Iranian languages: In Iran, Sangesari of the Semnan group shares a distinct set of features with Khwarezmian. In the east, Yaghnobi in Tajikistan continues a dialect of Sogdian, and Wakhi in the Pamirs shows distinct reflexes of Khotanese and Tumshuqese Saka. In fact, Wakhi is an example of the repeated invasions of Saka since antiquity."</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> According to the Indo-Europeanist Martin Kümmel, Wakhi may be classified as a Western Saka dialect; the other attested Saka dialects, Khotanese and Tumshuqese, would then be classified as Eastern Saka.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
GeneticsEdit
Template:See also The earliest studies could only analyze segments of mtDNA, thus providing only broad correlations of affinity to modern West Eurasian or East Eurasian populations. For example, in a 2002 study the mitochondrial DNA of Saka period male and female skeletal remains from a double inhumation kurgan at the Beral site in Kazakhstan was analysed. The two individuals were found to be not closely related. The HV1 mitochondrial sequence of the male was similar to the Anderson sequence which is most frequent in European populations. The HV1 sequence of the female suggested a greater likelihood of Asian origins.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
More recent studies have been able to type for specific mtDNA lineages. For example, a 2004 study examined the HV1 sequence obtained from a male "Scytho-Siberian" at the Kizil site in the Altai Republic. It belonged to the N1a maternal lineage, a geographically West Eurasian lineage.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Another study by the same team, again of mtDNA from two Scytho-Siberian skeletons found in the Altai Republic, showed that they had been typical males "of mixed Euro-Mongoloid origin". One of the individuals was found to carry the F2a maternal lineage, and the other the D lineage, both of which are characteristic of East Eurasian populations.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
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These early studies have been elaborated by an increasing number of studies by Russian and western scholars. Conclusions are (i) an early, Bronze Age mixing of both west and east Eurasian lineages, with western lineages being found far to the east, but not vice versa; (ii) an apparent reversal by Iron Age times, with an increasing presence of East Eurasian mtDNA lineages in the Western steppe; (iii) the possible role of migrations from the south, the Balkano-Danubian and Iranian regions, toward the steppe.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn
Unterländer, et al. (2017) found genetic evidence that the modern-day descendants of Eastern Scythians are found "almost exclusively" among modern-day Siberian Turkic speakers, suggesting that future studies could determine the extent to which the Eastern Scythians were involved in the early formation of Turkic-speaking populations.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
HaplogroupsEdit
Ancient Y-DNA data was finally provided by Keyser et al. in 2009. They studied the haplotypes and haplogroups of 26 ancient human specimens from the Krasnoyarsk area in Siberia dated from between the middle of the 2nd millennium BC and the 4th century AD (Scythian and Sarmatian timeframe). Nearly all subjects belonged to haplogroup R-M17. The authors suggest that their data shows that between the Bronze and the Iron Ages the constellation of populations known variously as Scythians, Andronovians, etc. were blue- (or green-) eyed, fair-skinned and light-haired people who might have played a role in the early development of the Tarim Basin civilisation. Moreover, this study found that they were genetically more closely related to modern populations in eastern Europe than those of central and southern Asia.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The ubiquity and dominance of the R1a Y-DNA lineage contrasted markedly with the diversity seen in the mtDNA profiles.
In May 2018, a genetic study published in Nature examined the remains of twenty-eight Inner Asian Sakas buried between ca. 900 BC to AD 1, compromising eight Sakas of southern Siberia (Tagar culture), eight Sakas of the central steppe (Tasmola culture), and twelve Sakas of the Tian Shan. The six samples of Y-DNA extracted from the Tian Shan Saka belonged to the West Eurasian haplogroups R (four samples), R1 and R1a1. Four samples of Y-DNA extracted from central Steppe sakas belonged to haplogroup R1 and R1a, while one individual belonged to haplogroup E1b1b.<ref name="nature.com">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The samples of mtDNA extracted from the Tian Shan Saka belonged to C4, H4d, T2a1, U5a1d2b, H2a, U5a1a1, HV6 (two samples), D4j8 (two samples), W1c and G2a1.<ref name="nature.com"/>
According to Tikhonov, et al. (2019), the Eastern Scythians and the Xiongnu "possibly bore proto-Turkic elements", based on a continuation of maternal and paternal haplogroups.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Autosomal DNAEdit
The 2018 in study detected significant genetic differences between analyzed Inner Asian Saka-associated samples and Scythian samples of the Pannonian Basin, as well as between different Saka subgroups of southern Siberia, the central steppe and the Tian Shan. While Scythians (or "Hungarian Saka") harbored exclusively ancestry associated with Western Steppe Herders, Inner Asian Saka displayed additional Neolithic Iranian (BMAC) and Southern Siberian hunter-gatherer (represented through a proxy of modern Altaians) components in varying degrees. Tian Shan Sakas were found to be of about 70% Western Steppe Herder (WSH) ancestry, 25% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gatherer ancestry and 5% Iranian Neolithic ancestry. The Iranian Neolithic ancestry was probably from the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex. Sakas of the Tasmola culture were found to be of about 56% WSH ancestry and 44% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gather ancestry. The peoples of the Tagar culture had about 83.5% WSH ancestry, 9% Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) ancestry and 7.5% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gatherer ancestry. The study suggested that the Inner Asian Saka were the source of West Eurasian ancestry among the Xiongnu, and that the Huns probably emerged through minor male-driven geneflow into the Saka through westward migrations by the Xiongnu.<ref>Template:Cite journal "Principal component analyses and D-statistics suggest that the Xiongnu individuals belong to two distinct groups, one being of East Asian origin and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian sources... Principal Component Analyses and D-statistics suggest that the Xiongnu individuals belong to two distinct groups, one being of East Asian origin and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian sources... We find that Central Sakas are accepted as a source for these 'western-admixed' Xiongnu in a single-wave model. In line with this finding, no East Asian gene flow is detected compared to Central Sakas as these form a clade with respect to the East Asian Xiongnu in a D-statistic, and furthermore, cluster closely together in the PCA (Figure 2)... Overall, our data show that the Xiongnu confederation was genetically heterogeneous, and that the Huns emerged following minor male-driven East Asian gene flow into the preceding Sakas that they invaded... As such our results support the contention that the disappearance of the Inner Asian Scythians and Sakas around two thousand years ago was a cultural transition that coincided with the westward migration of the Xiongnu. This Xiongnu invasion also led to the displacement of isolated remnant groups related to Late Bronze Age pastoralists that had remained on the southeastern side of the Tian Shan mountains."</ref> A genetic study published in 2020 in Cell,Template:Sfn modeled the ancestry of several Saka groups as a combination of Sintashta (Western Steppe Herders) and Baikal EBA ancestry (Western Baikal early Bronze Age hunter-gatherers, a profile consisting of about 80% Ancient Northeast Asian and 20% Ancient North Eurasian ancestries),Template:Sfn with varying degrees of an additional Neolithic Iranian (BMAC) component.Template:Sfn Specifically, Central Sakas of the Tasmola culture were found to be of about 43% Sintashta ancestry, 50% Baikal_EBA ancestry and 7% BMAC ancestry. Tagar Sakas (Tagar culture) were found to have an elevated Sintashta proportion (69% Sintashta, 24% Baikal_EBA, and 7% BMAC), while Tian Shan Sakas had an elevated BMAC proportion at 24% (50% Sintashta, 26% Baikal_EBA, and 24% BMAC). The eastern Uyuk Sakas (Arzhan culture) had 50% Sintashta, 44% Baikal_EBA, and 6% BMAC ancestry. The Pazyryk Sakas had elevated Baikal_EBA ancestry, with a nearly non-existent BMAC component (32% Sintashta, 68% Baikal_EBA, and ~0% BMAC).Template:Sfn Two other genetic studies published in 2021 and 2022 found that the Saka originated from a shared WSH-like (Srubnaya, Sintashta, and Andronovo culture) background with additional BMAC and East Eurasian-like ancestry. The Eastern ancestry among the Saka can also be represented by Lake Baikal (Shamanka_EBA-like) groups. The spread of Saka-like ancestry can be linked with the dispersal of Eastern Iranian languages (such as Khotanese).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
A later different Eastern influx is evident in three outlier samples of the Tasmola culture (Tasmola Birlik) and one of the Pazyryk culture (Pazyryk Berel), which displayed c. 70-83% additional Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry represented by the Neolithic Devil’s Gate Cave specimen, suggesting them to be recent migrants from further East. The same additional Eastern ancestry is found among the later groups of Huns (Hun Berel 300CE, Hun elite 350CE), and the Karakaba remains (830CE). At the same time, western Sarmatian-like and minor additional BMAC-like ancestry spread eastwards, with a Saka-associated sample from southeastern Kazakhstan (Konyr Tobe 300CE) displaying around 85% Sarmatian and 15% BMAC ancestry. Sarmatians are modeled to derive primarily from the preceding Western Steppe Herders of the Pontic–Caspian steppe.<ref name=":12">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The most closely related modern population to the Saka (and other Scythian groups) are the Tajiks, an Iranian peoples indigenous to Southern Central Asia, which display genetic continuity to Bronze and Iron Age Central Asians. These genetic links are paralleled by previous proposed "linguistic and physical anthropological links between the Tajiks and Scythians".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There is also increasing evidence for genetic affinities between the Eastern Scythians (such as the Pazyryk culture) and Turkic-speaking groups,<ref>Template:Cite journal "The substantial presence of the Ak-Alakha-1 mtDNA and Y-STR haplotypes in the contemporary Anatolian populations may be attributed to two major historical events: (a) the less likely being the Scythian invasion of Anatolia around 7th century BCE and settlement for around 30 years near the Aras or Araxes River (Herodotus 1920), and (b) the more likely being the Central Asiatic Turkic migrations into Anatolia from around 11th century CE onwards, keeping in mind the ever growing support for a strong genetic continuity between the ancient eastern Scythians and the proto-Turkic tribes (Unterlander et al. 2017)."</ref> which formed via admixture events during the Iron Age between local Saka groups and geneflow from the Eastern Steppe,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> but also Uralic and Paleo-Siberian peoples.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The admixture with West Eurasian sources was found to be "in accordance with the linguistically documented language borrowing in Turkic languages".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
East-West migrations and cultural transmissionEdit
Genetic data across Eurasia suggest that the Scythian cultural phenomenon was accompanied by some degree of migration from east to west, starting in the area of the Altai region.<ref name="MJ"/> In particular, the Classical Scythians of the western Eurasian steppe were not direct descendants of the local Bronze Age populations, but partly resulted from this east–west spread.<ref name="MJ"/> This also suggests that Scythoïd cultural characteristics were not simply the result of the transfer of material culture, but were also accompanied by human migrations of Saka populations from the east.<ref name="MJ">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The region between the Caspian Sea and of the Southern Urals originally had populations of Srubnaya (1900 BC–1200 BCE) and Andronovo (c. 2000–1150 BCE) ancestry ancestry, but, starting with the Iron Age (c.1000 BCE) became a region of intense ethnic and cultural interaction between European and Asian components.<ref name="MJE4">Template:Cite journal</ref> From the 7th century BCE, Early Saka nomads started to settle in the Southern Urals, coming from Central Asia, the Altai-Sayan region, and Central and Northern Kazakhstan.<ref name="MJE4"/> The Itkul culture (7th-5th century BCE) is one of these Early Saka cultures, based in the eastern foothills of the Urals, which was assimilated into the Sauromatian and Early Sarmatian cultures.<ref name="MJE4"/> Circa 600 BCE, groups from the Saka Tasmola culture settled in the southern Urals.<ref name="MJE4"/> Circa 500 BCE, other groups from the area of Ancient Khorezm settled in the western part of the southern Urals, who also assimilated into the Early Sarmatians.<ref name="MJE4"/> As a result, a large-scale integrated union of nomads from Central Asia formed in the area in the 5th–4th century BCE, with fairly uniformized cultural practices.<ref name="MJE4"/> This cultural complex, with notable ‘‘foreign elements’’, corresponds to the ‘‘royal’’ burials of Filippovka kurgan, and define the "Prokhorovka period" of the Early Sarmatians.<ref name="MJE4"/>
- Filippovka, individuals on a dagger blade, Kurgan 4, Burial 2.jpg
Warriors with daggers and bows. Dagger blade decoration from Kurgan 4, Burial 2, Filippovka kurgans, Late Sauromatian-Early Sarmatian, 5th-4th century BCE.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Taksai-1 Barrow 6 lady (reconstruction, detail).jpg
CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ArchaeologyEdit
The spectacular grave-goods from Arzhan, and others in Tuva, have been dated from about 800 BC onward, and the kurgans of Shilikty in eastern Kazakhstan circa 700 BC, and are associated with the Early Sakas.<ref name="Amir">Template:Cite journal</ref> Burials at Pazyryk in the Altay Mountains have included some spectacularly preserved Sakas of the "Pazyryk culture" – including the Ice Maiden of the 5th century BC.
Arzhan 1 kurgan (Template:Circa)Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Arzhan-1 was excavated by M. P. Gryaznov in the 1970s, establishing the origins of Scythian culture in the region in the 10th to 8th centuries BC:<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Arzhan-1 was carbon-dated to circa 800 BC.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Many of the styles of the artifacts found in Arzhan 1 (such as the animal style images of deer, boar, and panther) soon propagated to the west, probably following a migration mouvement from the east to the west in the 9th-7th centuries BC, and ultimately reaching European Scythia and influencing artistic styles there.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Аржаан-1.JPG
Arzhan-1, dated to circa 800 BC, partly looted in Antiquity
- Arzhan animal ring.jpg
Curled-up feline animal from Arzhan-1, circa 800 BC.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Shilikty/ Baigetobe kurgan (Template:Circa)Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Shilikty is an archaeological site in eastern Kazakhstan with numerous 8-6th century BC Early Saka kurgans.<ref name="Pan"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Carbon-14 dating suggests date of 730-690 BC for the kurgans, and a broad contemporaneity with the Arzhan-2 kurgan in Tuva.<ref name="Pan">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The Kurgans contained vast quantities of precious golden jewelry.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Remains of a "golden man" (similar to the Issyk kurgan golden man) were found in 2003, with 4262 gold finds.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Arzhan 2 (Template:Circa)Edit
Arzhan-2 was an undisturbed burial.<ref name="Man20">Template:Cite book</ref> Archaeologists found a royal couple, sixteen murdered attendants, and 9,300 objects.<ref name="Man20"/> 5,700 of these artifacts were made of gold, weighing a Siberian record-breaking twenty kilograms.<ref name="Man20"/> The male, who researchers guess was some sort of king, wore a golden torc, a jacket decorated with 2,500 golden panther figurines, a gold-encrusted dagger on a belt, trousers sewn with golden beads, and gold-cuffed boots.<ref name="Man20"/> The woman wore a red cloak that was also covered in 2,500 golden panther figurines, as well as a golden-hilted iron dagger, a gold comb, and a wooden ladle with a golden handle.<ref name="Man20"/>
- Arzhan deer.jpg
"Animal style" deer, (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
- 6. Pectorale burial mound Arzhan (VIII. - VII. B. C.) Tuva.JPG
Pectoral plate, from burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
- 8. Akinak (dagger) bural mound Arzhan (VIII.-VII. B.C.) Tuva.JPG
Akinak (dagger) burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
Eleke Sazy Burial Complex (Template:Circa)Edit
;_gold_with_turquoise_and_lapis_lazuli_inlays;_Kurgan_4,_group_II,_Eleke_Sazy,_Tarbagatai_mountains,_Kazakhstan;_8th_to_6th_century_BC.jpg){kind=link}
In 2020, archaeologists excavated multiple burial mounds in the Eleke Sazy Valley in East Kazakhstan. Here, a large number of gold artifacts were found. These artifacts included golf harness fittings, pendants, chains, appliqués, and more – most of which are in the Animal Style of the Scythian-Saka era dating back to the 5th–4th centuries BC.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Berel burial mound (Template:Circa)Edit
Near the selo of Berel in the Katonkaragay District of eastern Kazakhstan (Template:Coord<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>) excavations of ancient burial mounds have revealed artefacts the sophistication of which are encouraging a revaluation of the nomadic cultures of the 3rd and 4th centuries BC.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- 31. Catlike predator with protomas of two elk burial mound Berel (IV.-III. B.C.) Kazakhstan.JPG
Catlike predator with protomas of two elk, burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.
- 1. Deer in Griffin's beak, burial mound Berel (IV-III. B.C.) Kazakstan.JPG
Deer in Griffin's beak, burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
- 12. Tigergriffin arthor work based on Scytian- saka animal style burial mound Berel (V. - III. B.C.) Kazakstan.JPG
Tigergriffin arthor work based on Scytian- saka animal style, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
- 28. Griffins burial mound Berel (V.-III. B.C.) Kazakhstan.JPG
Griffins, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
- 34. Frontal decoration (harness) burial mound Berel (IV.-III. B.C.) Kazakhstan.JPG
Frontal decoration (harness), burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.
Pazyryk culture (Template:Circa)Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
Saka burials documented by modern archaeologists include the kurgans at Pazyryk in the Ulagan (Red) district of the Altai Republic, south of Novosibirsk in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia (near Mongolia). Archaeologists have extrapolated the Pazyryk culture from these finds: five large burial mounds and several smaller ones between 1925 and 1949, one opened in 1947 by Russian archaeologist Sergei Rudenko. The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch-logs covered over with large cairns of boulders and stones.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Pazyryk culture flourished between the 7th and 3rd century BC in the area associated with the Sacae.
Ordinary Pazyryk graves contain only common utensils, but in one, among other treasures, archaeologists found the famous Pazyryk Carpet, the oldest surviving wool-pile oriental rug. Another striking find, a 3-metre-high four-wheel funerary chariot, survived well-preserved from the 5th to 4th century BC.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Southern Siberian kurgans excavated in the 18th centuryEdit
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During the 18th century and the Russian expansion into Siberia, many Saka kurgans were plundered, sometimes by independent grave-robbers or sometimes officially at the instigation of Peter the Great, but usually without any archaeological records being taken.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Only the general location where they were excavated is known, between modern Kazakhstan and the Altai Mountains.<ref name="BM"/> ru Many of these artefacts were part of the archaeological presents sent by Template:Ill, Governor of Siberia based in Tobolsk, to Peter the Great in Saint-Petersburg in 1716.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They are now located in the Hermitage Museum in Saint-Petersburg, and form the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great. Their estimated datation ranges from the 7th century BC to the 1st century BC, depending on the artefacts.<ref name="BM"/>
- Siberian Collection of Peter the Great An aigrette. State Hermitage. Inv. Si 1727 1-131.jpg
Aigrette, 4th-3rd century BC. Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Steppes horseman hunting.jpg
Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum), 2nd-1st century BC.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Ингальская долина-3.jpg
Belt plaque from the Siberian collection of Peter the Great, probably Ingala Valley
- Siberian gold, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.jpg
Siberian gold, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great
Tillia Tepe treasure (2nd-1st century BC)Edit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
A site found in 1968 in Tillia Tepe (literally "the golden hill") in northern Afghanistan (former Bactria) near Shebergan consisted of the graves of five women and one man with extremely rich jewelry, dated to around the 1st century BC, and probably related to that of Saka tribes normally living slightly to the north.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Altogether the graves yielded several thousands of pieces of fine jewelry, usually made from combinations of gold, turquoise and lapis-lazuli.
A high degree of cultural syncretism pervades the findings, however. Hellenistic cultural and artistic influences appear in many of the forms and human depictions (from amorini to rings with the depiction of Athena and her name inscribed in Greek), attributable to the existence of the Seleucid empire and Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the same area until around 140 BC, and the continued existence of the Indo-Greek kingdom in the northwestern Indian sub-continent until the beginning of our era. This testifies to the richness of cultural influences in the area of Bactria at that time.
CultureEdit
Gender rolesEdit
Recently, evidence confirmed by the full-genomic analysis of a Scythian child's remains found in a coffin made of a larch trunk, which was discovered in Saryg-Bulun in Central Tuva, revealed that the individual, previously thought to be male because it had items that were associated with the belief that Scythian society was male-dominated, was actually female. Along with the leather skirt, the burial also contained a leather headdress painted with red pigment, a coat sewn from jerboa fur, a leather belt with bronze ornaments and buckles, a leather quiver with arrows with painted ornaments on the shafts, a fully-preserved battle pick, and a bow. These items provide valuable insights into the material culture and lifestyle of the Scythians, including their hunting and warfare practices, and their use of animal hides for clothing.<ref>New Kilunovskaya, M. E., Semenov, V. A., Busova, V. S., Mustafin, Kh. Kh., Alborova, I. E., & Matzvai, A. D. (2018). The Unique Burial of a Child of Early Scythian Time at the Cemetery of Saryg-Bulun (Tuva). Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, 46(3), 379–406.</ref>
ArtEdit
The art of the Saka was of a similar styles as other Iranian peoples of the steppes, which is referred to collectively as Scythian art. In 2001, the discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow at Arzhan illustrated Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered near Kyzyl, capital of the Siberian republic of Tuva.
Ancient influences from and to Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from the 8th century BC. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes (descriptions of animals locked in combat), particularly the rectangular belt-plaques made of gold or bronze, and created their own versions in jade and steatite.<ref>Mallory and Mair, The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, 2000</ref>
Following their expulsion by the Yuezhi, some Saka may also have migrated to the area of Yunnan in southern China. Saka warriors could also have served as mercenaries for the various kingdoms of ancient China. Excavations of the prehistoric art of the Dian civilisation of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing.<ref>"Les Saces", Iaroslav Lebedynsky, p.73 Template:ISBN</ref>
Saka influences have been identified as far as Korea and Japan. Various Korean artifacts, such as the royal crowns of the kingdom of Silla, are said to be of "Scythian" design.<ref>Crowns similar to the Scythian ones discovered in Tillia Tepe "appear later, during the 5th and 6th century at the eastern edge of the Asia continent, in the tumulus tombs of the Kingdom of Silla, in South-East Korea. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés", 2006, p282, Template:ISBN</ref> Similar crowns, brought through contacts with the continent, can also be found in Kofun era Japan.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ClothingEdit
Similar to other eastern Iranian peoples represented on the reliefs of the Apadana at Persepolis, Sakas are depicted as wearing long trousers, which cover the uppers of their boots. Over their shoulders they trail a type of long mantle, with one diagonal edge in back. One particular tribe of Sakas (the Saka tigraxaudā) wore pointed caps. Herodotus in his description of the Persian army mentions the Sakas as wearing trousers and tall pointed caps.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Men and women wore long trousers, often adorned with metal plaques and often embroidered or adorned with felt Template:Transliterations; trousers could have been wider or tight fitting depending on the area. Materials used depended on the wealth, climate and necessity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Herodotus says Sakas had "high caps tapering to a point and stiffly upright." Asian Saka headgear is clearly visible on the Persepolis Apadana staircase bas-relief – high pointed hat with flaps over ears and the nape of the neck.<ref name="saka_bas_relief">The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Photographic Archives. Persepolis – Apadana, E Stairway, Tribute Procession, the Saka Tigraxauda Delegation.[1] Template:Webarchive Retrieved 27 June 2012</ref> From China to the Danube delta, men seemed to have worn a variety of soft headgear – either conical like the one described by Herodotus, or rounder, more like a Phrygian cap.
![[1]](http://oi.uchicago.edu/gallery/pa_iran_paai_per_apa/index.php/1E8_72dpi.png?action=big&size=resize&fromthumbnail=true){kind=link}
Saka women dressed in much the same fashion as men. A Pazyryk burial, discovered in the 1990s, contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, each with weapons, arrowheads, and an axe. Clothing was sewn from plain-weave wool, hemp cloth, silk fabrics, felt, leather and hides.
Pazyryk findings give the most almost fully preserved garments and clothing worn by the Scythian/Saka peoples. Ancient Persian bas-reliefs, inscriptions from Apadana and Behistun and archaeological findings give visual representations of these garments.
Based on the Pazyryk findings (can be seen also in the south Siberian, Uralic and Kazakhstan rock drawings) some caps were topped with zoomorphic wooden sculptures firmly attached to a cap and forming an integral part of the headgear, similar to the surviving nomad helmets from northern China. Men and warrior women wore tunics, often embroidered, adorned with felt applique work, or metal (golden) plaques.
Persepolis Apadana again serves a good starting point to observe the tunics of the Sakas. They appear to be a sewn, long-sleeved garment that extended to the knees and was girded with a belt, while the owner's weapons were fastened to the belt (sword or dagger, gorytos, battle-axe, whetstone etc.). Based on numerous archeological findings, men and warrior women wore long-sleeved tunics that were always belted, often with richly ornamented belts. The Kazakhstan Saka (e.g. Issyk Golden Man/Maiden) wore shorter and closer-fitting tunics than the Pontic steppe Scythians. Some Pazyryk culture Saka wore short belted tunic with a lapel on the right side, with upright collar, 'puffed' sleeves narrowing at the wrist and bound in narrow cuffs of a color different from the rest of the tunic.
Men and women wore coats: e.g. Pazyryk Saka had many varieties, from fur to felt. They could have worn a riding coat that later was known as a Median robe or Kantus. Long sleeved, and open, it seems that on the Persepolis Apadana Skudrian delegation is perhaps shown wearing such coat. The Pazyryk felt tapestry shows a rider wearing a billowing cloak.
TattoosEdit
Men and women of eastern saka are known to have been extensively tattooed. The men in the Pazyryk burials had extensive tattoos in the Siberian animal style.<ref name="nomads">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A Pazyryk chief in burial mound 2, had his body covered in animal style tattoos, but not his face.<ref name="SP106">Template:Cite book</ref> Parts of the body had deteriorated, but much of the tattooing was still clearly visible. Subsequent investigation using reflected infrared photography revealed that all five bodies discovered in the Pazyryk kurgans were tattooed.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> No instruments specifically designed for tattooing were found, but the Pazyryks had extremely fine needles with which they did miniature embroidery, and these were probably used for tattooing. The chief was elaborately decorated with an interlocking series of striking designs representing a variety of fantastic beasts. The best preserved tattoos were images of a donkey, a mountain ram, two highly stylized deer with long antlers and an imaginary carnivore on the right arm. Two monsters resembling griffins decorate the chest, and on the left arm are three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat. On the front of the right leg a fish extends from the foot to the knee. A monster crawls over the right foot, and on the inside of the shin is a series of four running rams which touch each other to form a single design. The left leg also bears tattoos, but these designs could not be clearly distinguished. In addition, the chief's back was tattooed with a series of small circles in line with the vertebral column.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Siberian Ice Maiden is also known for her extensive tattoos.<ref name="siberiantimes.com">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Pazyryk-2 tattoos.png
Tattoos of the Pazyryk-2 chief.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Pazyryk tatoo design with zoomorphic symbols, 4th century BCE.jpg
Tattoos of the chief's right arm, with zoomorphic symbols.<ref name="siberiantimes.com"/>
- Pazyryk-2 man, back and left arm (circa 300 BCE).jpg
Tattoos of the chief's back and left arm.<ref name="siberiantimes.com"/>
- Tatoo motif on the arm of the Siberian Ice Maiden.png
Tattoo motif on the arm of the Siberian Ice Maiden.<ref name="siberiantimes.com"/>
WarfareEdit
A skull from an Iron Age cemetery in South Siberia shows evidence of scalping. It lends physical evidence to the practice of scalp taking by the Scythians living there.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Later depictions of "Sakas" in China (1st-3rd century AD)Edit
Numerous depictions of foreigners of Saka appearance appear in China around the Eastern Han period (25–220 AD), sometimes as far east as Shandong. They may have appeared in relation with the conflicts against the Scythoïd Xirong in the west or the Donghu people in the North, or the Kushans in the area of Xinjiang. They were generally called "Hu" by the Chinese.<ref name="SKA"/><ref name="SS"/><ref name="BZ"/>
- Mingqi (Chinese funerary statuette) of a young western man, with scythian type caftan and conical hat reminiscent of early 3rd century CE Kushans. Later Han 3rd century CE. Guimet Museum (MA 4660).jpg
Mingqi (Chinese funerary statuette) of a young Central Asian man, with Saka-type caftan and conical hat reminiscent of early 3rd century AD Kushans. Later Han, 3rd century AD. Guimet Museum (MA 4660).<ref name="SKA">Template:Cite book</ref>
- Hu and Han war narratives. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 CE). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city.png
Eastern Han tombs sometimes have depiction of battles between Hu barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 AD). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city. Also visible in Yinan tombs.<ref name="BZ">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Han monumental statues of Barbarian (山东发现的汉代大型胡人石雕像).png
General appearance of the numerous Scythoïd Hu monumental statues from Shandong, featuring people with a high nose, deep eyes and a pointed hat. Eastern Han period.<ref name="SS">Several photographs and descriptions in: Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Yinan battle scene, 2nd century CE, Eastern Han (Hu attack).png
Yinan tombs relief, depicting an attack by Hu barbarians with pointed hats, bow and arrows. 2nd century AD, Eastern Han.<ref name="Hu">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Hu statue columns from Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 Han period tomb in Linyi, Shandong.jpg
Hu statue from Wu Baizhuang tomb (吳白莊), Han dynasty period, Linyi, Shandong.<ref name="doi.org">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Hu statue with lion column from Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 Han period tomb in Linyi, Shandong.jpg
Hu statue from Wu Baizhuang tomb (吳白莊), Han dynasty period, Linyi, Shandong.<ref name="doi.org"/>
- Foreigner hunting, circa 500 BCE, Gansu Museum.jpg
CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See alsoEdit
- Besshatyr Burial Ground
- History of the central steppe
- Sakas in the Mahabharata
- Sakzai
- Shaka era
- Template:Ill
- Maga Brahmin
- Scytho-Siberian world
ReferencesEdit
CitationsEdit
BibliographyEdit
- Akiner (28 October 2013). Cultural Change & Continuity in Central Asia. Routledge. Template:ISBN.
- Bailey, H. W. 1958. "Languages of the Saka." Handbuch der Orientalistik, I. Abt., 4. Bd., I. Absch., Leiden-Köln. 1958.
- Bailey, H. W. (1979). Dictionary of Khotan Saka. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. Template:ISBN
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- Wechsler, Howard J.; Twitchett, Dennis C. (1979). Denis C. Twitchett; John K. Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–227. Template:ISBN.
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- Yu, Taishan. 1998. A Study of Saka History. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 80. July 1998. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania.
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- Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN.
External linksEdit
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- Scythians / Sacae by Jona Lendering
- Article by Kivisild et al. on genetic heritage of early Indian settlers Template:Webarchive
- Indian, Japanese and Chinese Emperors – The Sakas/Parthians, 97 BC-125 AD
Template:Central Asian history Template:Scythia Template:Authority control