1 World Trade Center (1970–2001)
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The original One World Trade Center (also known as the North Tower, Tower 1, Building One, or 1 WTC) was one of the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center complex in New York City. It was completed in 1972, stood at a height of Template:Convert, and was the tallest building in the world until 1973, when surpassed by the Sears Tower in Chicago.
It was distinguishable from its twin, the original 2 World Trade Center, also known as the South Tower, by the Template:Convert telecommunications antenna on its roof. Including the antenna, the building stood at a total height of Template:Convert. Other things that made the North Tower distinguishable from its twin was a canopy connected to the North Tower's west facade on street level as well as two pedestrian walkways that extended from the west and south promenades of Three and Six World Trade Center to the North Tower's north and south facades on plaza level, all of which the South Tower lacked. The building's address was 1 World Trade Center, and the WTC complex had its own ZIP code (10048) due to its large size.
The original World Trade Center was destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Struck by American Airlines Flight 11 at 8:46 a.m., the North Tower was the first of the Twin Towers to be hit by a hijacked aircraft, and the second to collapse, at 10:28 a.m. The North Tower stood for 102 minutes after the aircraft impact. Of the 2,977 victims killed in the attacks, around 1,700 were in the North Tower or on the ground.
The North Tower was succeeded by the present-day One World Trade Center tower, which was opened in November 2014 as the lead building of the redeveloped World Trade Center site.<ref>World Trade Center Template:Webarchive. PANYNJ.gov. 2012. Retrieved May 24, 2012.</ref><ref>One World Trade Center construction updates Template:Webarchive. Lower Manhattan.info. Retrieved August 12, 2012.</ref> At the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, the northern pool marks the spot where the North Tower once stood.
HistoryEdit
DevelopmentEdit
In 1961, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed to build the World Trade Center on the site of the Hudson Terminal in Lower Manhattan, New York City.<ref name="nyt-1961dec29">Template:Cite news</ref> On Template:Nowrap, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects.<ref name=":0" /> Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers. His original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall,<ref name="nyt-1964jan19a">Template:Cite news</ref> but to meet the Port Authority's requirement for Template:Convert of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall.Template:Sfnp Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on Template:Nowrap, 1964, called for a square plan approximately Template:Convert in dimension on each side.<ref name="nyt-1964jan19a" />Template:Sfnp
In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site.<ref name="nyt 19650329">Template:Cite news</ref> Demolition work began on Template:Nowrap, 1966,Template:Sfnp and groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on Template:Nowrap, 1966.Template:Sfnp In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers.<ref name="nyt-1967jan24">Template:Cite news</ref> Construction work began on the North Tower in Template:Nowrap.<ref name="pbstimeline">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The topping out ceremony for 1 WTC (the North Tower) took place on Template:Nowrap, 1970.<ref name="pbstimeline"/> The first tenants moved into the North Tower on Template:Nowrap, while it was still under construction,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="PANYNJ">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and a ribbon cutting ceremony took place on Template:Nowrap, 1973.Template:Sfnp
OperationEdit
On February 13, 1975, a three-alarm fire broke out on the North Tower's 11th floor, spreading to the 9th and 14th floors. At that time, the World Trade Center had no fire sprinkler systems.<ref name="nyt 19750214">Template:Cite news</ref> A disgruntled custodian was discovered to have deliberately started the fire and was criminally charged.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Following the fire, in 1981, the Port Authority announced a $45 million plan to install sprinklers throughout the World Trade Center.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12:17 p.m. A Ryder truck filled with Template:Convert of explosives (planted by Ramzi Yousef) detonated in the North Tower's underground garage.<ref name="reeve p10">Template:Cite book</ref> According to a presiding judge, the conspirators' chief aim at the time of the attack was to destabilize the North Tower and send it crashing into the South Tower, toppling both skyscrapers.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Six people were killed and 1,042 others were injured in the attacks.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="barbanel">Template:Cite news</ref> Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore structural support.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In February 2001, the Port Authority leased the entire World Trade Center complex to Vornado Realty Trust.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and the next-highest bidder, Silverstein Properties, signed a lease for the complex on Template:Nowrap, 2001.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
DestructionEdit
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At 8:46 a.m. (EDT) on September 11, 2001, five hijackers affiliated with al-Qaeda crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower between the 93rd and 99th floors.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03 a.m. (EDT), a second group of five terrorists crashed the hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower, striking between the 77th and 85th floors.<ref name="911commission">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
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By 9:59 a.m. (EDT), the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. After burning for 102 minutes, the North Tower collapsed due to structural failure at 10:28 a.m. (EDT).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center, damaging it and starting fires. The fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity. Seven World Trade Center collapsed at 5:21 p.m. (EDT).<ref>World Trade Center Building Performance Study, Ch. 5 WTC 7 – section 5.5.4</ref><ref>Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7, p. xxxvii.</ref>
Together with a simultaneous attack on the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and a passenger revolt that resulted in a plane crash in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, the attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people (2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 hijackers).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="CBC-Winnipegger">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> More than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact.<ref name="NISTcasualties">Sunder (2005), p. 48.</ref> In the North Tower, 1,355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped, and died of smoke inhalation, fell, jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames, or were killed when the building eventually collapsed. One stairwell in the South Tower, Stairwell A, somehow avoided complete destruction, unlike the rest of the building.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> When Flight 11 hit, all three staircases in the North Tower's impact zone were destroyed, making it impossible for anyone above the 91st floor to escape. 107 people below the point of impact also died.<ref name="NISTcasualties" />
ArchitectureEdit
Minoru Yamasaki was the lead architect for the tower, and Emery Roth & Sons were the associate architects.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> During the World Trade Center's construction, the structural engineers ended up following draft versions of New York City's 1968 building codes, which incorporated "advanced techniques" in building design.Template:Sfnp The Twin Towers used a tube-frame design, which required 40 percent less structural steel than conventional building designs.<ref name="steel2">Template:Cite journal</ref> The structures were inspired by the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier and was the seminal expression of Yamasaki's gothic modernist tendencies.Template:Sfnp Yamasaki was also inspired by Islamic architecture, elements of which he incorporated in the buildings' design, having previously designed Saudi Arabia's Dhahran International Airport with the Saudi Binladin Group.<ref name="Grudin2010">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Kerr 2001">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
When completed, the North Tower stood Template:Convert tall.<ref name="WSO">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It featured a Template:Convert telecommunications antenna or mast that was built on the roof in 1979 (upgraded in 1999 to accommodate DTV broadcasts). With this addition, the highest point of the North Tower reached Template:Convert.<ref name="mcdowell">Template:Cite news</ref> Each tower stood over Template:Convert high, and occupied about Template:Convert of the total Template:Convert of the site's land.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
FacadeEdit
The Twin Towers' facades were made of high-strength, load-bearing perimeter steel columns which acted as Vierendeel trusses.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfnp Although the columns themselves were lightweight, they were spaced closely together, forming a strong, rigid wall structure.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp There were 59 perimeter columns, narrowly spaced, on each side of the building.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp In all, the perimeter walls measured Template:Convert long on each side, and the corners were beveled. Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The perimeter structure was constructed of prefabricated modular pieces connected by spandrel plates.Template:Sfnp From the 7th floor to the ground level, and down to the foundation, the columns were spaced Template:Convert apart to accommodate doorways.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp All columns were placed on bedrock 65–85 feet (20–26 m) below the surface.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Structural featuresEdit
The building's core housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m), and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower.Template:Sfnp The North Tower's structural core was oriented with the long axis east to west.<ref name="NIST NCSTAR 1-6D p. 285" /> The core columns supported about half the towers' weight.<ref name="NIST NCSTAR 1-6D p. 285">Template:Cite journal</ref> All elevators were located in the core. Each building had three stairwells, also in the core, except on the mechanical floors.Template:Sfnp The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses, which connected to the perimeter columns.Template:Sfnp
Hat trusses (or "outrigger truss") located from the 107th floor to the top of the North and South towers were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building.Template:Sfnp Only the North Tower actually had an antenna fitted, which was added in 1979.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The framed-tube design using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed-on fire resistant material created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind.Template:Sfnp In designing the World Trade Center, Leslie Robertson considered the scenario of the impact of a jet airliner crashing into the building.<ref name="Robertson">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) found a three-page white paper that mentioned another aircraft impact analysis, involving impact of a jet at Template:Convert, was indeed considered, but NIST could not locate the documentary evidence of the aircraft impact analysis.<ref>Sadek, Fahim. Baseline Structural Performance and Aircraft Impact Damage Analysis of the World Trade Center Towers(NCSTAR 1–2 appendix A). NIST 2005. pp. 305–307.</ref>
Sprayed-fire resistant materials (SFRMs), gypsum wallboard, and vermiculite were used to provide fireproofing to the interiors.Template:Sfnp More fireproofing was added after a fire in February 1975,<ref name="FEMA">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> but after the 1993 bombing, inspections found fireproofing to be deficient.<ref>Template:Harvp. NIST lists upgraded floors as 92–100 and 102 plus 8 unspecified floors.</ref> The 1968 New York City building codes did not require sprinklers for high-rise buildings, except for underground spaces,Template:Sfnp but the entire complex was retrofitted by 2001.Template:Sfnp
Tenants at the time of the attacksEdit
The tenant list below was compiled from the original list provided by CoStar Group (a provider of electronic commercial real estate information), quoted by CNN,<ref name=CNN>Template:Cite news</ref> and was sourced from UnBlinking.com.<ref>Template:Usurped. UnBlinking.com. 2001. Retrieved November 29, 2012.</ref> Cantor Fitzgerald's corporate headquarters were located in 1 World Trade Center.<ref>"office locations." Cantor Fitzgerald. August 9, 2001. Retrieved October 4, 2009.</ref>
Note: Floor numbers in red were part of American Airlines Flight 11's impact area on September 11, 2001, with floors trapped by its impact numbered in dark gray .
SOURCES: CoStar Group, CNN, and Unblinking.
Floor unknown: Alliance Global Finance, Associated Charter Marine, Carreden Group, CIF Agency, Dimetol International Trade, Eastern Capital Corporation, Falcon International Freight, First Pacific Rim, GAC Shipping, Garwood Financial, Globe Shipping Company, GSI Cargo Service, Hachijuni Bank, Hanil Securities, Lin Brothers International, Pluto Commodities, Port Newark
92nd floorEdit
The 92nd floor, though technically the first floor below Flight 11's impact zone, did not have any survivors.<ref name="National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States 2004">Template:Cite book</ref> Sixty-nine people reported to work that morning, including 67 employees of Carr Futures, a tenant on the 92nd floor. The impact itself spared every single person on Floor 92 and did no damage to the floor directly. However, the force of the crash collapsed walls and inflicted nonstructural damage such as smashed windows,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> broken ceiling tiles and severed electrical wires, as well as causing knee-deep flooding throughout various rooms on the 92nd floor after the water pipes burst. Multiple calls were recorded from people trapped on the floor, the workers reporting that although the stairs on the 92nd floor had not been destroyed, they were walled off by fallen debris from Flight 11's impact zone immediately above.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite news</ref> In addition to the stairs being rendered impassable, the centralized impact into the North Tower's core also interrupted elevator service in the skyscraper from its 50th floor and higher, severing all escape routes for anyone above the 91st floor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Initially, conditions on the 92nd floor were likely not dissimilar to what they were on the 91st, from which everyone survived and escaped.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The situation changed very quickly when flammable aviation fuel spilled down into the 92nd floor, igniting fires that rapidly began consuming its east side; within 12 minutes of the impact, the first known fatalities from the floor occurred over a three-minute period when eight workers were forced to jump from the northern end of the tower's east side to escape a rapidly advancing wall of flames.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Those who remained made their way to an unoccupied area on the west side of the floor that was initially free of smoke and fire. However, images show that the blaze on the tower’s north face eventually spread westward to their safe haven in that section of the floor, making conditions there unsurvivable.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The last phone call from the North Tower came from Thomas McGinnis, a trader on the 92nd floor, when he got through to his wife Iliana at 10:18. McGinnis and a number of others had been confined to a conference room the entire time after the door jammed shut from the building buckling as the plane hit, separating them from everyone else on the floor. Most of the floor was engulfed in flames by the time McGinnis called, with extremely limited space for the group to avoid being burned.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Despite his wife's attempts to reassure him, McGinnis did not believe they would survive. The South Tower had already collapsed, and McGinnis revealed to her that he could see people jumping from the floors above. The line went dead at 10:26, two minutes before the tower collapsed.<ref name="auto"/>
Tenants that left prior to the attacksEdit
Between 1978 and 1995, the Consulate of Paraguay was located in Suite 1609 of 1 World Trade Center.<ref>"Where to Get Information Before You Go" Template:Webarchive (requires subscription). The New York Times. Retrieved April 26, 2013. </ref><ref>"1995: International Adoption – Paraguay Template:Webarchive." U.S. Department of State Bureau of Consular Affairs. Retrieved January 15, 2012. "Consulate General of Paraguay Consular Section 1 World Trade Center, Suite 1609 New York, NY 10048".</ref> Home Lines once occupied Suite 3969 from 1974<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> until 1988.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ReferencesEdit
CitationsEdit
SourcesEdit
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External linksEdit
- "WTC Response Update: Governor Pataki Announces Partnership To Help New York City Businesses In Need Of Office Space"Template:Dead link. CoStar Group.
- List of World Trade Center tenants via CNN (Archive)
- World Trade Center Tenant Relocation Summary Template:Webarchive via TenantWise.com
- World Trade Center Tragedy: Information for Families, Friends and Colleagues – Marsh and McLennan Companies
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