Helios
Template:Short description Template:About Template:Redirect Template:Distinguish Template:Infobox deity Template:Ancient Greek religion
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Helios (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx; Homeric Greek: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is the god who personifies the Sun. His name is also Latinized as Helius, and he is often given the epithets Hyperion ("the one above") and Phaethon ("the shining").Template:Efn Helios is often depicted in art with a radiant crown and driving a horse-drawn chariot through the sky. He was a guardian of oaths and also the god of sight. Though Helios was a relatively minor deity in Classical Greece, his worship grew more prominent in late antiquity thanks to his identification with several major solar divinities of the Roman period, particularly Apollo and Sol. The Roman Emperor Julian made Helios the central divinity of his short-lived revival of traditional Roman religious practices in the 4th century AD.
Helios figures prominently in several works of Greek mythology, poetry, and literature, in which he is often described as the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia and brother of the goddesses Selene (the Moon) and Eos (the Dawn). Helios' most notable role in Greek mythology is the story of his mortal son Phaethon.<ref>March, s.v. Helios</ref> In the Homeric epics, his most notable role is the one he plays in the Odyssey, where Odysseus' men despite his warnings impiously kill and eat Helios's sacred cattle that the god kept at Thrinacia, his sacred island. Once informed of their misdeed, Helios in wrath asks Zeus to punish those who wronged him, and Zeus agreeing strikes their ship with a thunderbolt, killing everyone, except for Odysseus himself, the only one who had not harmed the cattle, and was allowed to live.<ref>Homer, Odyssey, XII.262, 348, 363.</ref>
Due to his position as the sun, he was believed to be an all-seeing witness and thus was often invoked in oaths. He also played a significant part in ancient magic and spells. In art he is usually depicted as a beardless youth in a chiton holding a whip and driving his quadriga, accompanied by various other celestial gods such as Selene, Eos, or the stars. In ancient times he was worshipped in several places of ancient Greece, though his major cult centres were the island of Rhodes, of which he was the patron god, Corinth and the greater Corinthia region. The Colossus of Rhodes, a gigantic statue of the god, adorned the port of Rhodes until it was destroyed in an earthquake, thereupon it was not built again.
NameEdit
The Greek noun Template:Math (Template:Small {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Small {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Small {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Template:Small {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) (from earlier Template:Math /hāwelios/) is the inherited word for the Sun from Proto-Indo-European *Template:PIE<ref>R.S.P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 516.</ref> which is cognate with Latin sol, Sanskrit surya, Old English swegl, Old Norse sól, Welsh haul, Avestan hvar, etc.<ref>helios. Online Etymology Dictionary.</ref><ref>Toorn et al, s.v. Helios pp 394–395</ref> The Doric and Aeolic form of the name is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Hálios. In Homeric Greek his name is spelled {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Ēélios, with the Doric spelling of that being {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Aélios. In Cretan it was {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Abélios) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Awélios).<ref>ἥλιος in Liddell & Scott (1940), A Greek–English Lexicon, Oxford: Clarendon Press</ref> The Greek view of gender was also present in their language. Ancient Greek had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), so when an object or a concept was personified as a deity, it inherited the gender of the relevant noun; helios is a masculine noun, so the god embodying it is also by necessity male.<ref name="Hansen 2004">Template:Cite book</ref> The female offspring of Helios were called Heliades, the male Heliadae.
The author of the Suda lexicon tried to etymologically connect Template:Math to the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, aollízesthai, "coming together" during the daytime, or perhaps from {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, aleaínein, "warming".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Plato in his dialogue Cratylus suggested several etymologies for the word, proposing among others a connection, via the Doric form of the word halios, to the words {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, halízein, meaning collecting men when he rises, or from the phrase {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, aeí heileín, "ever turning" because he always turns the earth in his course.
Doric Greek retained Proto-Greek long *ā as α, while Attic changed it in most cases, including in this word, to η. Cratylus and the etymologies Plato gives are contradicted by modern scholarship.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> From helios comes the modern English prefix helio-, meaning "pertaining to the Sun", used in compounds word such as heliocentrism, aphelion, heliotropium, heliophobia (fear of the sun) and heliolatry ("sun-worship").<ref>Template:OEtymD</ref>
OriginsEdit
,_Helios-Relief,_mitte.jpg){kind=link}
Helios most likely is Proto-Indo-European in origin. Walter Burkert wrote that "... Helios, the sun god, and Eos-Aurora, the goddess of the dawn, are of impeccable Indo-European lineage both in etymology and in their status as gods" and might have played a role in Proto-Indo-European poetry.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The imagery surrounding a chariot-driving solar deity is likely Indo-European in origin.<ref name=Pachoumi/><ref>Gelling, P. and Davidson, H.E. The Chariot of the Sun and Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronze Age. London, 1969.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Greek solar imagery begins with the gods Helios and Eos, who are brother and sister, and who become in the day-and-night-cycle the day (hemera) and the evening (hespera), as Eos accompanies Helios in his journey across the skies. At night, he pastures his steeds and travels east in a golden boat. In them evident is the Indo-European grouping of a sun god and his sister, as well as an association with horses.<ref name=":adms">Template:Cite book</ref>
Helen of Troy's name is thought to share the same etymology as Helios,<ref>Euripides, Robert E. Meagher, Helen, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1986</ref><ref>O'Brien, Steven. "Dioscuric Elements in Celtic and Germanic Mythology". Journal of Indo-European Studies 10:1 & 2 (Spring–Summer, 1982), 117–136.</ref><ref>Skutsch, Otto. "Helen, her Name and Nature". Journal of Hellenic Studies 107 (1987), 188–193.</ref> and she may express an early alternate personification of the sun among Hellenic peoples. Helen might have originally been considered to be a daughter of the Sun, as she hatched from an egg and was given tree worship, features associated with the Proto-Indo-European Sun Maiden;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> in surviving Greek tradition however Helen is never said to be Helios' daughter, instead being the daughter of Zeus.<ref name=":west">Template:Cite book</ref>
It has been suggested that the Phoenicians brought over the cult of their patron god Baal among others (such as Astarte) to Corinth, who was then continued to be worshipped under the native name/god Helios, similarly to how Astarte was worshipped as Aphrodite, and the Phoenician Melqart was adopted as the sea-god Melicertes/Palaemon, who also had a significant cult in the isthmus of Corinth.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Helios' journey on a chariot during the day and travel with a boat in the ocean at night possibly reflects the Egyptian sun god Ra sailing across the skies in a barque to be reborn at dawn each morning anew; additionally, both gods, being associated with the sun, were seen as the "Eye of Heaven".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
DescriptionEdit
Helios is the son of Hyperion and Theia,<ref name=":hesd">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":pseuap">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> or Euryphaessa,<ref name=":hh31">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> or Basileia,<ref name=":dio" /> and the only brother of the goddesses Eos and Selene. If the order of mention of the three siblings is meant to be taken as their birth order, then out of the four authors that give him and his sisters a birth order, two make him the oldest child, one the middle, and the other the youngest.Template:Efn Helios was not among the regular and more prominent deities, rather he was a more shadowy member of the Olympian circle,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> despite the fact that he was among the most ancient.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> From his lineage, Helios might be described as a second generation Titan.<ref name=":barry">Template:Citation</ref> He is associated with harmony and order, both literally in the sense of the movement of celestial bodies and metaphorically in the sense of bringing order to society.<ref name=":berg45">Template:Cite book</ref>
Helios is usually depicted as a handsome young man crowned with the shining aureole of the Sun, which traditionally had twelve rays, symbolising the twelve months of the year.<ref name=":thon">Template:Cite book</ref> Beyond his Homeric Hymn, not many texts describe his physical appearance; Euripides describes him as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (khrysо̄pós) meaning "golden-eyed/faced" or "beaming like gold",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Mesomedes of Crete writes that he has golden hair,<ref name="Oxford University Press">Template:Cite book</ref> and Apollonius Rhodius that he has light-emitting, golden eyes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Augustan poet Ovid, he dressed in tyrian purple robes and sat on a throne of bright emeralds.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In ancient artefacts (such as coins, vases, or reliefs) he is presented as a beautiful, full-faced youth<ref name=":stoll">Template:Cite book</ref> with wavy hair,<ref name=":fairb">Template:Cite book</ref> wearing a crown adorned with the sun's rays.<ref name=":seyf" />
Helios is said to drive a golden chariot drawn by four horses:<ref name=":hom">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Pyrois ("The Fiery One", not to be confused with Pyroeis, one of the five naked-eye planets known to ancient Greek and Roman astronomers), Aeos ("He of the Dawn"), Aethon ("Blazing"), and Phlegon ("Burning").<ref>Gordon MacDonald Kirkwood, A Short Guide to Classical Mythology, p. 88</ref> In a Mithraic invocation, Helios's appearance is given as thus:
A god is then summoned. He is described as "a youth, fair to behold, with fiery hair, clothed in a white tunic and a scarlet cloak and wearing a fiery crown." He is named as "Helios, lord of heaven and earth, god of gods."Template:Sfn
As mentioned above, the imagery surrounding a chariot-driving solar deity is likely Indo-European in origin and is common to both early Greek and Near Eastern religions.<ref>Burkert, W. Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Cambridge Mass., 1985, p. 175.</ref><ref name=":verg">Template:Cite book</ref>
Helios is seen as both a personification of the Sun and the fundamental creative power behind it,<ref name="julian_works" /> and as a result is often worshiped as a god of life and creation. His literal "light" is often assorted with a metaphorical vitality,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and other ancient texts give him the epithet "gracious" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). The comic playwright Aristophanes describes Helios as "the horse-guider, who fills the plain of the earth with exceeding bright beams, a mighty deity among gods and mortals."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> One passage recorded in the Greek Magical Papyri says of Helios, "the earth flourished when you shone forth and made the plants fruitful when you laughed and brought to life the living creatures when you permitted."<ref name="Pachoumi" /> He is said to have helped create animals out of primeval mud.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
MythologyEdit
God of the SunEdit
Rising and SettingEdit
Helios was envisioned as a god driving his chariot from east to west each day, rising from the Oceanus River and setting in the west under the earth. It is unclear as to whether this journey means that he travels through Tartarus.<ref name=":keig">Template:Cite book</ref>
Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae relates that, at the hour of sunset, Helios climbs into a great cup of solid gold in which he passes from the Hesperides in the farthest west to the land of the Ethiops, with whom he passes the dark hours. According to Athenaeus, Mimnermus said that in the night Helios travels eastwards with the use of a bed (also created by Hephaestus) in which he sleeps, rather than a cup,<ref name=":ath">Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 11.39</ref> as attested in the Titanomachy in the 8th century BCE.<ref name=":keig" /> Aeschylus describes the sunset as such:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
"There [is] the sacred wave, and the coralled bed of the Erythræan Sea, and [there] the luxuriant marsh of the Ethiopians, situated near the ocean, glitters like polished brass; where daily in the soft and tepid stream, the all-seeing Sun bathes his undying self, and refreshes his weary steeds."{{#if:Aeschylus, Prometheus Unbound.<ref>Strabo, Geographica 1.2.27, translation by H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A., Ed.</ref>|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}
Athenaeus adds that "Helios gained a portion of toil for all his days", as there is no rest for either him or his horses.<ref>Template:Harvnb: [F]or him does his lovely bed bear across the wave, [...] from the dwelling of the Hesperides to the land of the Aithiopes where his swift chariot and his horses stand till early-born Dawn shall come; there does the son of Hyperion mount his car."</ref>
Although the chariot is usually said to be the work of Hephaestus,<ref>Aeschylus in his lost play Heliades writes: "Where, in the west, is the bowl wrought by Hephaestus, the bowl of thy sire, speeding wherein he crosseth the mighty, swelling stream that girdleth earth, fleeing the gloom of holy night of sable steeds."</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Hyginus states that it was Helios himself who built it.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> His chariot is described as golden,<ref name=":hom" /> or occasionally "rosy",<ref name="Oxford University Press"/> and pulled by four white horses.<ref name="Hansen 2004"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Keightley, p. 56, 62</ref><ref name=":verg" /> The Horae, goddesses of the seasons, are part of his retinue and help him yoke his chariot.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> His sister Eos is said to have not only opened the gates for Helios, but would often accompany him as well.<ref>Bell, s. v. Eos</ref> In the extreme east and west were said to be people who tended to his horses, for whom summer was perpetual and fruitful.<ref name=":fairb" />
Disrupted scheduleEdit
_Flaxman_Ilias_1795,_Zeichnung_1793,_188_x_255_mm.jpg){kind=link}
On several instances in mythology the normal solar schedule is disrupted; he was ordered not to rise for three days during the conception of Heracles, and made the winter days longer in order to look upon Leucothoe. Athena's birth was a sight so impressive that Helios halted his steeds and stayed still in the sky for a long while,<ref>Homeric Hymn 28 to Athena 28.13; Waterfield, p. 53</ref> as heaven and earth both trembling at the newborn goddess' sight.Template:Sfn
In the Iliad, Hera who supports the Greeks, makes him set earlier than usual against his will during battle,<ref>Homer, Iliad 18.239–240</ref> and later still during the same war, after his sister Eos's son Memnon was killed, she made him downcast, causing his light to fade, so she could be able to freely steal her son's body undetected by the armies, as he consoled his sister in her grief over Memnon's death.<ref>Philostratus of Lemnos, Imagines 1.7.2</ref>
It was said that summer days are longer due to Helios often stopping his chariot mid-air to watch from above nymphs dancing during the summer,<ref>Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis 181–182</ref><ref>Powell Barry, p. 182</ref> and sometimes he is late to rise because he lingers with his consort.<ref>Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Aphrodite and Eros</ref> If the other gods wish so, Helios can be hastened on his daily course when they wish it to be night.<ref>Fairbanks, p. 39</ref>
When Zeus desired to sleep with Alcmene, he made one night last threefold, hiding the light of the Sun, by ordering Helios not to rise for those three days.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 2.4.8; Seneca, Hercules Furens 24; Argonautica Orphica 113.</ref>Template:Sfn Satirical author Lucian of Samosata dramatized this myth in one of his Dialogues of the Gods.<ref>Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Hermes and the Sun</ref>Template:Efn
While Heracles was travelling to Erytheia to retrieve the cattle of Geryon for his tenth labour, he crossed the Libyan desert and was so frustrated at the heat that he shot an arrow at Helios, the Sun. Almost immediately, Heracles realized his mistake and apologized profusely (Pherecydes wrote that Heracles stretched his arrow at him menacingly, but Helios ordered him to stop, and Heracles in fear desisted<ref name=":ath" />); In turn and equally courteous, Helios granted Heracles the golden cup which he used to sail across the sea every night, from the west to the east because he found Heracles' actions immensely bold. In the versions delivered by Apollodorus and Pherecydes, Heracles was only about to shoot Helios, but according to Panyassis, he did shoot and wounded the god.<ref>Matthews, p. 52</ref>
Solar eclipsesEdit
Solar eclipses were phaenomena of fear as well as wonder in Ancient Greece, and were seen as the Sun abandoning humanity.<ref>Glover, Eric. "The eclipse of Xerxes in Herodotus 7.37: Lux a non obscurando." The Classical Quarterly, vol. 64, no. 2, 2014, pp. 471–492. New Series. Accessed 12 Sept. 2021.</ref> According to a fragment of Archilochus, it is Zeus who blocks Helios and makes him disappear from the sky.<ref>Archilochus frag 122; Rutherford, p. 193</ref> In one of his paeans, the lyric poet Pindar describes a solar eclipse as the Sun's light being hidden from the world, a bad omen of destruction and doom:<ref>Ian Rutherford, Pindar's Paeans: A reading of the fragments with a survey of the genre.</ref>
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
Beam of the sun! What have you contrived, observant one, mother of eyes, highest star, in concealing yourself in broad daylight? Why have you made helpless men's strength and the path of wisdom, by rushing down a dark highway? Do you drive a stranger course than before? In the name of Zeus, swift driver of horses, I beg you, turn the universal omen, lady, into some painless prosperity for Thebes ... Do you bring a sign of some war or wasting of crops or a mass of snow beyond telling or ruinous strife or emptying of the sea on land or frost on the earth or a rainy summer flowing with raging water, or will you flood the land and create a new race of men from the beginning?{{#if:Pindar, Paean IX<ref>Rutherford, p. 191</ref>|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}
Horses of HeliosEdit
Some lists, cited by Hyginus, of the names of horses that pulled Helios' chariot, are as follows. Scholarship acknowledges that, despite differences between the lists, the names of the horses always seem to refer to fire, flame, light and other luminous qualities.<ref>Slim, Hédi. "La chute de Phaeton sur une mosaïque de Barrarus-Rougga en Tunisie". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. 147e année, N. 3, 2003. p. 1121. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.2003.22628; www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_2003_num_147_3_22628</ref>
- According to Eumelus of Corinth – late 7th/ early 6th century BC: The male trace horses are Eous (by him the sky is turned) and Aethiops (as if flaming, parches the grain) and the female yoke-bearers are Bronte ("Thunder") and Sterope ("Lightning").
- According to Ovid — Roman, 1st century BC Phaethon's ride: Pyrois ("the fiery one"), Eous ("he of the dawn"), Aethon ("blazing"), and Phlegon ("burning").<ref name=":hyg183">Hyginus, Fabulae 183</ref><ref>Dain, Philippe. Mythographe du Vatican III. Traduction et commentaire. Besançon: Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité, 2005. p. 156 (footnote nr. 33) (Collection "ISTA", 854). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ista.2005.2854; www.persee.fr/doc/ista_0000-0000_2005_edc_854_1</ref>
Hyginus writes that according to Homer, the horses' names are Abraxas and Therbeeo; but Homer makes no mention of horses or chariot.<ref name=":hyg183" />
Alexander of Aetolia, cited in Athenaeus, related that the magical herb grew on the island Thrinacia, which was sacred to Helios, and served as a remedy against fatigue for the sun god's horses. Aeschrion of Samos informed that it was known as the "dog's-tooth" and was believed to have been sown by Cronus.<ref>Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 7.294C</ref>
Awarding of RhodesEdit
According to Pindar,<ref name=":pin7">Pindar, Olympian Odes 7</ref> when the gods divided the earth among them, Helios was absent, and thus he got no lot of land. He complained to Zeus about it, who offered to do the division of portions again, but Helios refused the offer, for he had seen a new land emerging from the deep of the sea; a rich, productive land for humans and good for cattle too. Helios asked for this island to be given to him, and Zeus agreed to it, with Lachesis (one of the three Fates) raising her hands to confirm the oath. Alternatively in another tradition, it was Helios himself who made the island rise from the sea when he caused the water which had overflowed it to disappear.<ref name=":dd563">Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.56.3</ref> He named it Rhodes, after his lover Rhode (the daughter of Poseidon and Aphrodite<ref>Scholia on Pindar's Olympian Odes 7.25</ref> or Amphitrite<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.4.5</ref>), and it became the god's sacred island, where he was honoured above all other gods. With Rhode Helios sired seven sons, known as the Heliadae ("sons of the Sun"), who became the first rulers of the island, as well as one daughter, Electryone.<ref name=":dd563" /> Three of their grandsons founded the cities Ialysos, Camiros and Lindos on the island, named after themselves;<ref name=":pin7" /> thus Rhodes came to belong to him and his line, with the autochthonous peoples of Rhodes claiming descend from the Heliadae.<ref>Conon, Narrations 47</ref>
PhaethonEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
The most well known story about Helios is the one involving his son Phaethon, who asked him to drive his chariot for a single day. Although all versions agree that Phaethon convinced Helios to give him his chariot, and that he failed in his task with disastrous results, there are a great number of details that vary by version, including the identity of Phaethon's mother, the location the story takes place, the role Phaethon's sisters the Heliades play, the motivation behind Phaethon's decision to ask his father for such thing, and even the exact relation between god and mortal.
Traditionally, Phaethon was Helios' son by the Oceanid nymph Clymene,<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses; Euripides, Phaethon; Nonnus, Dionysiaca; Hyginus, Fabulae 152A</ref> or alternatively Rhode<ref name=":pin">Scholia on Homer, Odyssey 17.208 Template:Webarchive</ref> or the otherwise unknown Prote.<ref>John Tzetzes, Chiliades 4.127</ref> In one version of the story, Phaethon is Helios' grandson, rather than son, through the boy's father Clymenus. In this version, Phaethon's mother is an Oceanid nymph named Merope.<ref name=":fb154">Hyginus, Fabulae 154</ref>
In Euripides' lost play Phaethon, surviving only in twelve fragments, Phaethon is the product of an illicit liaison between his mother Clymene (who is now married to Merops, the king of Aethiopia) and Helios, though she claimed that her lawful husband was the father of her all her children.<ref>Gantz, pp 31–32 Template:Webarchive</ref><ref>Diggle, pp 7–8</ref> Clymene reveals the truth to her son, and urges him to travel east to get confirmation from his father after she informs him that Helios promised to grant their child any wish when he slept with her. Although reluctant at first, Phaethon is convinced and sets on to find his birth father.<ref>Cod. Claromont. - Pap. Berl. 9771, Euripides fragment 773 Nauck</ref> In a surviving fragment from the play, Helios accompanies his son in his ill-fated journey in the skies, trying to give him instructions on how to drive the chariot while he rides on a spare horse named Sirius,<ref name=":dig138" /> as someone, perhaps a paedagogus informs Clymene of Phaethon's fate, who is probably accompanied by slave women:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
Take, for instance, that passage in which Helios, in handing the reins to his son, says—
"Drive on, but shun the burning Libyan tract;
The hot dry air will let thine axle down:
Toward the seven Pleiades keep thy steadfast way."
And then—
"This said, his son undaunted snatched the reins,
Then smote the winged coursers' sides: they bound
Forth on the void and cavernous vault of air.
His father mounts another steed, and rides
With warning voice guiding his son. 'Drive there!
Turn, turn thy car this way."{{#if:Euripides, Phaethon frag 779<ref>Longinus, On the Sublime 15.4, with a translation by H. L. Havell.</ref>|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=Template:Main other|preview=Page using Template:Blockquote with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | author | by | char | character | cite | class | content | multiline | personquoted | publication | quote | quotesource | quotetext | sign | source | style | text | title | ts }}
If this messenger did witness the flight himself, it is possible there was also a passage where he described Helios taking control over the bolting horses in the same manner as Lucretius described.<ref>Diggle, pp 42–43</ref> Phaethon inevitably dies; a fragment near the end of the play has Clymene order the slave girls hide Phaethon's still-smouldering body from Merops, and laments Helios' role in her son's death, saying he destroyed him and her both.<ref name=":frag" /> Near the end of the play it seems that Merops, having found out about Clymene's affair and Phaethon's true parentage, tries to kill her; her eventual fate is unclear, but it has been suggested she is saved by some deus ex machina.<ref name=":cocro">Collard and Cropp, p. 202</ref> A number of deities have been proposed for the identity of this possible deus ex machina, with Helios among them.<ref name=":cocro" />
In Ovid's account, Zeus' son Epaphus mocks Phaethon's claim that he is the son of the sun god; his mother Clymene tells Phaethon to go to Helios himself, to ask for confirmation of his paternity. Helios promises him on the river Styx any gift that he might ask as a proof of paternity; Phaethon asks for the privilege to drive Helios' chariot for a single day. Although Helios warns his son of how dangerous and disastrous this would be, he is nevertheless unable to change Phaethon's mind or revoke his promise. Phaethon takes the reins, and the earth burns when he travels too low, and freezes when he takes the chariot too high. Zeus strikes Phaethon with lightning, killing him. Helios refuses to resume his job, but he returns to his task and duty at the appeal of the other gods, as well as Zeus' threats. He then takes his anger out on his four horses, whipping them in fury for causing his son's death.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.747–2.400</ref>
Nonnus of Panopolis presented a slightly different version of the myth, narrated by Hermes; according to him, Helios met and fell in love with Clymene, the daughter of the Ocean, and the two soon got married with her father's blessing. When he grows up, fascinated with his father's job, he asks him to drive his chariot for a single day. Helios does his best to dissuade him, arguing that sons are not necessarily fit to step into their fathers' shoes. But under pressure of Phaethon and Clymene's begging both, he eventually gives in. As per all other versions of the myth, Phaethon's ride is catastrophic and ends in his death.<ref>Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.142–435</ref>
Hyginus wrote that Phaethon secretly mounted his father's car without said father's knowledge and leave, but with the aid of his sisters the Heliades who yoked the horses.<ref>Gantz, p. 33</ref>
In all retellings, Helios recovers the reins in time, thus saving the earth.<ref>Bell, s. v. Phaethon</ref> Another consistent detail across versions are that Phaethon's sisters the Heliades mourn him by the Eridanus and are turned into black poplar trees, who shed tears of amber. According to Quintus Smyrnaeus, it was Helios who turned them into trees, for their honour to Phaethon.<ref>Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 5.300, "The Daughters of the Sun, the Lord of Omens, shed (tears) for Phaethon slain, when by Eridanos' flood they mourned for him. These, for undying honour to his son, the god made amber, precious in men's eyes."</ref> In one version of the myth, Helios conveyed his dead son to the stars, as a constellation (the Auriga).<ref>Hyginus, De astronomia 2.42.2</ref>
The WatchmanEdit
PersephoneEdit
Helios is said to have seen and stood witness to everything that happened where his light shone. When Hades abducts Persephone, Helios is the only one to witness it.Template:Sfn
In Ovid's Fasti, Demeter asks the stars first about Persephone's whereabouts, and it is Helice who advises her to go ask Helios. Demeter is not slow to approach him, and Helios then tells her not to waste time, and seek out for "the queen of the third world".<ref>Ovid, Fasti 4.575</ref>
Ares and AphroditeEdit
In another myth, Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, but she cheated on him with his brother Ares, god of war. In Book Eight of the Odyssey, the blind singer Demodocus describes how the illicit lovers committed adultery, until one day Helios caught them in the act, and immediately informed Aphrodite's husband Hephaestus. Upon learning that, Hephaestus forged a net so thin it could hardly be seen, in order to ensnare them. He then announced that he was leaving for Lemnos. Upon hearing that, Ares went to Aphrodite and the two lovers coupled.<ref>Homer, Odyssey 8. 266–295</ref> Once again Helios informed Hephaestus, who came into the room and trapped them in the net. He then called the other gods to witness the humiliating sight.<ref>Homer, Odyssey 8. 296–332</ref>
Much later versions add a young man to the story, a warrior named Alectryon, tasked by Ares to stand guard should anyone approach. But Alectryon fell asleep, allowing Helios to discover the two lovers and inform Hephaestus. For this, Aphrodite hated Helios and his race for all time.<ref name=":senny">Seneca, Phaedra 124</ref> In some versions, she cursed his daughter Pasiphaë to fall in love with the Cretan Bull as revenge against him.<ref>Scholia on Euripides' Hippolytus 47</ref><ref>Libanius, Progymnasmata 2.21</ref> Pasiphaë's daughter Phaedra's passion for her step-son Hippolytus was also said to have been inflicted on her by Aphrodite for this same reason.<ref name=":senny" />
Leucothoe and ClytieEdit
Aphrodite aims to enact her revenge by making Helios fall for a mortal princess named Leucothoe, forgetting his previous lover the Oceanid Clytie for her sake. Helios watches her from above, even making the winter days longer so he can have more time looking at her. Taking the form of her mother Eurynome, Helios enters their palace, entering the girl's room before revealing himself to her.
However, Clytie informs Leucothoe's father Orchamus of this affair, and he buries Leucothoe alive in the earth. Helios comes too late to rescue her, so instead he pours nectar into the earth, and turns the dead Leucothoe into a frankincense tree. Clytie, spurned by Helios for her role in his lover's death, strips herself naked, accepting no food or drink, and sits on a rock for nine days, pining after him, until eventually turning into a purple, sun-gazing flower, the heliotrope.<ref name=":1">Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.167–273; Lactantius Placidus, Argumenta 4.5; Paradoxographers anonymous, p. 222</ref><ref>Hard, p. 45; Gantz, p. 34; Berens, p. 63; Grimal, s. v. Clytia</ref> This myth, it has been theorized, might have been used to explain the use of frankincense aromatic resin in Helios' worship.Template:Sfn Leucothoe being buried alive as punishment by a male guardian, which is not too unlike Antigone's own fate, may also indicate an ancient tradition involving human sacrifice in a vegetation cult.Template:Sfn At first the stories of Leucothoe and Clytie might have been two distinct myths concerning Helios which were later combined along with a third story, that of Helios discovering Ares and Aphrodite's affair and then informing Hephaestus, into a single tale either by Ovid himself or his source.<ref name="20–38">Fontenrose, Joseph. The Gods Invoked in Epic Oaths: Aeneid, XII, 175-215. The American Journal of Philology 89, no. 1 (1968): pp 20–38.</ref>
OtherEdit
In Sophocles' play Ajax, Ajax the Great, minutes before committing suicide, calls upon Helios to stop his golden reins when he reaches Ajax's native land of Salamis and inform his aging father Telamon and his mother of their son's fate and death, and salutes him one last time before he kills himself.<ref>Sophocles, Ajax 845-860</ref>
Involvement in warsEdit
Helios sides with the other gods in several battles.<ref name=":gig">Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library 5.71.3</ref> Surviving fragments from Titanomachy imply scenes where Helios is the only one among the Titans to have abstained from attacking the Olympian gods,<ref>Fr. *4 Serv. in Aen. 6.580 (de Titanomachia; II 81.12–13 Thilo et Hagen) [= *4 GEF]</ref> and they, after the war was over, gave him a place in the sky and awarded him with his chariot.<ref>Titanomachy fragments 4.GEF, 11.EGEF and 12.EGEF in Tsagalis, p. 47</ref><ref name=":mad">Madigan, pp 48–49</ref>
He also takes part in the Giant wars; it was said by Pseudo-Apollodorus that during the battle of the Giants against the gods, the giant Alcyoneus stole Helios' cattle from Erytheia where the god kept them,<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.6.1</ref> or alternatively, that it was Alcyoneus' very theft of the cattle that started the war.<ref>Scholia on Pindar, Isthmian Odes 6.47b</ref><ref>Gantz, pp. 419, 448–449</ref> Because the earth goddess Gaia, mother and ally of the Giants, learned of the prophecy that the giants would perish at the hand of a mortal, she sought to find a magical herb that would protect them and render them practically indestructible; thus Zeus ordered Helios, as well as his sisters Selene (Moon) and Eos (Dawn) not to shine, and harvested all of the plant for himself, denying Gaia the opportunity to make the Giants immortal, while Athena summoned the mortal Heracles to fight by their side.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.6.1; Hansen, p. 178; Gantz, 449</ref>
At some point during the battle of gods and giants in Phlegra,<ref>Aeschylus, Eumenides 294; Euripides, Heracles Gone Mad 1192–1194; Ion 987–997; Aristophanes, The Birds 824; Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.232–234 (pp. 210–211), 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277). See also Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW (Most 2007, p. 143, Gantz, p. 446)</ref> Helios takes up an exhausted Hephaestus on his chariot.<ref>Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.220–234</ref> After the war ends, one of the giants, Picolous, flees to Aeaea, where Helios' daughter, Circe, lived. He attempted to chase Circe away from the island, only to be killed by Helios.<ref>Eustathius, Ad Odysseam 10.305; translation by Zucker and Le Feuvre p. 324: "Alexander of Paphos reports the following tale: Picoloos, one of the Giants, by fleeing from the war led against Zeus, reached Circe's island and tried to chase her away. Her father Helios killed him, protecting his daughter with his shield; from the blood which flowed on the earth a plant was born, and it was called μῶλυ because of the {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or the battle in which the Giant aforementioned was killed."</ref><ref>The Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius: Book III, p. 89 note 845</ref><ref>Le Comte, p. 75</ref> From the blood of the slain giant that dripped on the earth a new plant was sprang, the herb moly, named thus from the battle ("malos" in Ancient Greek).<ref>Knight, p. 180</ref>
Helios is depicted in the Pergamon Altar, waging war against Giants next to Eos, Selene, and Theia in the southern frieze.<ref>Picón and Hemingway, p. 47</ref><ref>LIMC 617 (Helios) Template:Webarchive.</ref><ref>Faita, pp 202–203</ref><ref name=":mad" /><ref>Now housed in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and can be seen here.</ref>
Clashes and punishmentsEdit
GodsEdit
A myth about the origin of Corinth goes as such: Helios and Poseidon clashed as to who would get to have the city. The Hecatoncheir Briareos was tasked to settle the dispute between the two gods; he awarded the Acrocorinth to Helios, while Poseidon was given the isthmus of Corinth.<ref name=":p215">Fowler 1988, p. 98 n. 5; Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1.6, 2.4.6.</ref><ref>Dio Chrysostom, Discourses 37.11–12</ref>
Aelian wrote that Nerites was the son of the sea god Nereus and the Oceanid Doris. In the version where Nerites became the lover of Poseidon, it is said that Helios turned him into a shellfish, for reasons unknown. At first Aelian writes that Helios was resentful of the boy's speed, but when trying to explain why he changed his form, he suggests that perhaps Poseidon and Helios were rivals in love.<ref>Aelian, On Animals 14.28</ref>Template:Sfn
In an Aesop fable, Helios and the north wind god Boreas argued about which one between them was the strongest god. They agreed that whoever was able to make a passing traveller remove his cloak would be declared the winner. Boreas was the one to try his luck first; but no matter how hard he blew, he could not remove the man's cloak, instead making him wrap his cloak around him even tighter. Helios shone bright then, and the traveller, overcome with the heat, removed his cloak, giving him the victory. The moral is that persuasion is better than force.<ref>Aesop, Fables 183</ref>
MortalsEdit
Relating to his nature as the Sun,<ref name=":gender">Rea, Katherine A., The Neglected Heavens: Gender and the Cults of Helios, Selene, and Eos in Bronze Age and Historical Greece, (2014). Classics: Student Scholarship & Creative Works. Augustana College, PDF.</ref> Helios was presented as a god who could restore and deprive people of vision, as it was regarded that his light that made the faculty of sight and enabled visible things to be seen.<ref>John Peter Anton and George L. Kustas, Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy II, p. 236</ref><ref>Decharme, pp 241–242</ref> In one myth, after Orion was blinded by King Oenopion, he traveled to the east, where he met Helios. Helios then healed Orion's eyes, restoring his eyesight.<ref>Pseudo-Eratosthenes, Placings Among the Stars Orion; Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.4.3; Hyginus, De astronomia 2.34.3; Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid 10.763</ref> In Phineus's story, his blinding, as reported in Apollonius Rhodius's Argonautica, was Zeus' punishment for Phineus revealing the future to mankind.<ref>Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 2.178–86</ref> According, however, to one of the alternative versions, it was Helios who had deprived Phineus of his sight.<ref>Scholia on Homer's Odyssey 12.69</ref> Pseudo-Oppian wrote that Helios' wrath was due to some obscure victory of the prophet; after Calais and Zetes slew the Harpies tormenting Phineus, Helios then turned him into a mole, a blind creature.<ref>Pseudo-Oppian, Cynegetica 2.615</ref> In yet another version, he blinded Phineus at the request of his son Aeëtes.<ref>Fowler, p. 222, vol. II; Gantz, pp 352–353.</ref>
In another tale, the Athenian inventor Daedalus and his young son Icarus fashioned themselves wings made of birds' feathers glued together with wax and flew away.<ref>Apollodorus, Epitome 1.12</ref> According to scholia on Euripides, Icarus, being young and rashful, thought himself greater than Helios. Angered, Helios hurled his rays at him, melting the wax and plunging Icarus into the sea to drown. Later, it was Helios who decreed that said sea would be named after the unfortunate youth, the Icarian Sea.Template:Sfn<ref>Apollodorus, Epitome 1.12–13</ref>
Arge was a huntress who, while hunting down a particularly fast stag, claimed that fast as the Sun as it was, she would eventually catch up to it. Helios, offended by the girl's words, changed her shape into that of a doe.<ref>Hyginus, Fabulae 205</ref><ref>Alexander Stuart Murray and William H. Klapp, Handbook of World Mythology, p. 288</ref>
In one rare version of Smyrna's tale, it was an angry Helios who cursed her to fall in love with her own father Cinyras because of some unspecified offence the girl committed against him; in the vast majority of other versions however, the culprit behind Smyrna's curse is the goddess of love Aphrodite.<ref>Servius Commentary on Virgil's Eclogues 10.18</ref>
Oxen of the SunEdit
Helios is said to have kept his sheep and cattle on his sacred island of Thrinacia, or in some cases Erytheia.<ref>Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo 410–414</ref> Each flock numbers fifty beasts, totaling 350 cows and 350 sheep—the number of days of the year in the early Ancient Greek calendar; the seven herds correspond to the week, containing seven days.<ref>Chris Rorres, Archimedes' count of Homer's Cattle of the Sun, 2008, Drexel University, chapter 3</ref> The cows did not breed or die.<ref>Homer, Odyssey 12.127–135</ref> In the Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes, after Hermes has been brought before Zeus by an angry Apollo for stealing Apollo's sacred cows, the young god excuses himself for his actions and says to his father that "I reverence Helios greatly and the other gods".<ref>Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes 383</ref><ref>Kimberley Christine Patton, Religion of the Gods: Ritual, Paradox, and Reflexivity p. 393</ref>
Augeas, who in some versions is his son, safe-keeps a herd of twelve bulls sacred to the god.<ref>Theocritus, Idylls 28 Heracles the Lion-Slayer 28.129-130</ref> Moreover, it was said that Augeas' enormous herd of cattle was a gift to him by his father.<ref>Theocritus, Idylls 28 Heracles the Lion-Slayer 28.118–121</ref>
Apollonia in Illyria was another place where he kept a flock of his sheep; a man named Peithenius had been put in charge of them, but the sheep were devoured by wolves. The other Apolloniates, thinking he had been neglectful, gouged out Peithenius' eyes. Angered over the man's treatment, Helios made the earth grow barren and ceased to bear fruit; the earth grew fruitful again only after the Apolloniates had propitiated Peithenius by craft, and by two suburbs and a house he picked out, pleasing the god.<ref>Conon, Narrations 40.</ref> This story is also attested by Greek historian Herodotus, who calls the man Evenius.<ref name=":hh993">Herodotus, Histories 9.93 –94</ref>Template:Sfn
OdysseyEdit
During Odysseus' journey to get back home, he arrives at the island of Circe, who warns him not to touch Helios' sacred cows once he reaches Thrinacia, or the god would keep them from returning home. Though Odysseus warns his men, when supplies run short they kill and eat some of the cattle. The guardians of the island, Helios' daughters Phaethusa and Lampetia, tell their father about this. Helios then appeals to Zeus telling him to dispose of Odysseus' men, rejecting the crewmen's compensation of a new temple in Ithaca.<ref>Loney, p. 92</ref> Zeus destroys the ship with his lightning bolt, killing all the men except for Odysseus.<ref>Homer, Odyssey 12.352–388</ref>
Other worksEdit
Helios is featured in several of Lucian's works beyond his Dialogues of the Gods. In another work of Lucian's, Template:Interlanguage link, Selene complains to the titular character about philosophers wanting to stir up strife between herself and Helios.<ref>Lucian, Icaromenippus 20; Lucian is parodying here Anaxagoras' theory that the sun was a piece of blazing metal.</ref> Later he is seen feasting with the other gods on Olympus, and prompting Menippus to wonder how can night fall on the Heavens while he is there.<ref>Lucian, Icaromenippus 28</ref>
Diodorus Siculus recorded an unorthodox version of the myth, in which Basileia, who had succeeded her father Uranus to his royal throne, married her brother Hyperion, and had two children, a son Helios and a daughter Selene. Because Basileia's other brothers envied these offspring, they put Hyperion to the sword and drowned Helios in the river Eridanus, while Selene took her own life. After the massacre, Helios appeared in a dream to his grieving mother and assured her and their murderers would be punished, and that he and his sister would now be transformed into immortal, divine natures; what was known as Mene<ref>Hard, p. 46, another Greek word for the Moon.</ref> would now be called Selene, and the "holy fire" in the heavens would bear his own name.<ref name=":dio">Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library 3.57.2–8; Grimal, s. v. Basileia</ref><ref>Caldwell, p. 41, note on lines 207–210</ref>
It was said that Selene, when preoccupied with her passion for the mortal Endymion,<ref>Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Aphrodite and Eros I</ref> would give her moon chariot to Helios to drive it.<ref>Seneca, Phaedra 309–314</ref>
Claudian wrote that in his infancy, Helios was nursed by his aunt Tethys.<ref>Claudian, Rape of Persephone Book II</ref>
Template:AnchorPausanias writes that the people of Titane held that Titan was a brother of Helios, the first inhabitant of Titane after whom the town was named;<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.11.5</ref> Titan however was generally identified as Helios himself, instead of being a separate figure.<ref>Ugarit-Forschungen, Volume 31, Verlag Butzon & Bercker, 2000, p. 20</ref>
According to sixth century BC lyric poet Stesichorus, with Helios in his palace lives his mother Theia.<ref>Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 11.38; "Now the Sun, begotten of Hyperion, was descending into his golden cup, that he might traverse the Ocean and come to the depths of dark and awful night, even to his mother and wedded wife and beloved children."</ref>
In the myth of the dragon Python's slaying by Apollo, the slain serpent's corpse is said to have rotten in the strength of the "shining Hyperion".<ref>Homeric Hymn 3 363-369</ref>
Consorts and childrenEdit
,_Liebieghaus_Skulpturensammlung,_Frankfurt_am_Main_(52662740200).jpg){kind=link}
The god Helios is typically depicted as the head of a large family, and the places that venerated him the most would also typically claim both mythological and genealogical descent from him;<ref name=":gender" /> for example, the Cretans traced the ancestry of their king Idomeneus to Helios through his daughter Pasiphaë.<ref name=":5259">Pausanias, Description of Greece 5.25.9</ref>
Traditionally the Oceanid nymph Perse was seen as the sun god's wife<ref>Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. 35A Fowler (p. 141); Hard, p. 44.</ref> by whom he had various children, most notably Circe, Aeëtes, Minos' wife Pasiphaë, Perses, and in some versions the Corinthian king Aloeus.<ref>Bell, s. v. Perse</ref> Ioannes Tzetzes adds Calypso, otherwise the daughter of Atlas, to the list of children Helios had by Perse, perhaps due to the similarities of the roles and personalities she and Circe display in the Odyssey as hosts of Odysseus.<ref>Tzetzes ad Lycophron, 174 (Gk text)</ref>Template:AI-generated source
_MET_DP225321.jpg){kind=link}
At some point Helios warned Aeëtes of a prophecy that stated he would suffer treachery from one of his own offspring (which Aeëtes took to mean his daughter Chalciope and her children by Phrixus).<ref>Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.597–600</ref><ref>Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.309–313</ref> Helios also bestowed several gifts on his son, such as a chariot with swift steeds,<ref>Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.220–221</ref> a golden helmet with four plates,<ref>Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.1229</ref> a giant's war armor,<ref>Philostratus, Imagines 11</ref> and robes and a necklace as a pledge of fatherhood.<ref>Seneca, Medea 570</ref> When his daughter Medea betrays him and flees with Jason after stealing the golden fleece, Aeëtes calls upon his father and Zeus to witness their unlawful actions against him and his people.<ref>Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.228–230</ref>
As father of Aeëtes, Helios was also the grandfather of Medea and would play a significant role in Euripides' rendition of her fate in Corinth. When Medea offers Princess Glauce the poisoned robes and diadem, she says they were gifts to her from Helios.<ref>Euripides, Medea 956</ref> Later, after Medea has caused the deaths of Glauce and King Creon, as well as her own children, Helios helps her escape Corinth and her husband.<ref>Euripides, Medea 1322</ref><ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.28</ref> In Seneca's rendition of the story, a frustrated Medea criticizes the inaction of her grandfather, wondering why he has not darkened the sky at sight of such wickedness, and asks from him his fiery chariot so she can burn Corinth to the ground.<ref>Seneca, Medea 32–41</ref><ref>Boyle, p. 98</ref>
However, he is also stated to have married other women instead like Rhodos in the Rhodian tradition,<ref>Fowler 2013, pp. 14, 591–592; Hard, pp. 43, 105; Grimal, p. 404 "Rhode", pp. 404–405 "Rhodus"; Smith, "Rhode" , "Rhodos"; Pindar, Olympian Odes 7.71–74; Diodorus Siculus, 5.55</ref> by whom he had seven sons, the Heliadae (Ochimus, Cercaphus, Macar, Actis, Tenages, Triopas, Candalus), and the girl Electryone.
In Nonnus' account from the Dionysiaca, Helios and the nymph Clymene met and fell in love with each other in the mythical island of Kerne and got married.<ref>Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.110-141, with a translation by William Henry Denham Rouse.</ref> Soon Clymene fell pregnant with Phaetheon. Her and Helios raised their child together, until the ill-fated day the boy asked his father for his chariot.<ref>Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.142-217</ref> A passage from Greek anthology mentions Helios visiting Clymene in her room.<ref>Greek anthology Macedonius the Consul 5.223</ref>
The mortal king of Elis Augeas was said to be Helios' son, but Pausanias states that his actual father was the mortal king Eleios.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 5.1.9</ref>
In some rare versions, Helios is the father, rather than the brother, of his sisters Selene and Eos. A scholiast on Euripides explained that Selene was said to be his daughter since she partakes of the solar light, and changes her shape based on the position of the sun.<ref>Keightley, p. 61</ref>
| Consort | Children | Consort | Children | Consort | Children | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Athena | • The Corybantes<ref>Strabo, Geographica 10.3.19.</ref> | Rhodos Template:Small |
• The HeliadaeTemplate:Efn | Ephyra Template:Nobr |
• Aeëtes | ||
| Aegle, Template:Small |
• The Charites<ref>Otherwise called daughters of Eurynome with Zeus (Hesiod Theogony 907) or of Aphrodite with Dionysus (Anacreontea fragment 38).</ref> | 1. Tenages | Antiope<ref>Diophantus in scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.242</ref> | • Aeëtes | |||
| 1. Aglaea Template:Small |
2. Macareus | • Aloeus | |||||
| 2. Euphrosyne Template:Small |
3. Actis | Gaia | • Tritopatores<ref name="sud">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> | ||||
| 3. Thalia Template:Small |
4. Triopas | • Bisaltes<ref>Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Bisaltia</ref> | |||||
| Clymene Template:Small |
• The Heliades<ref>Mostly represented as poplars mourning Phaethon's death beside the river Eridanus, weeping tears of amber in Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.340 & Hyginus, Fabulae 154</ref> | 5. Candalus | • Achelous<ref>Hecateus fragment 378</ref><ref>Grimal s. v. Achelous</ref> | ||||
| 1. Aetheria | 6. Ochimus | Hyrmine<ref>Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.172</ref> or | • Augeas | ||||
| 2. Helia | 7. Cercaphus | Iphiboe<ref name="4.361" /> or | |||||
| 3. Merope | 8. Auges | Nausidame<ref>Daughter of Amphidamas of Elis in Hyginus, Fabulae 14.3 & Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.172</ref> | |||||
| 4. Phoebe | 9. Thrinax | Demeter or | • Acheron<ref>Natalis Comes, Mythologiae 3.1; Smith s.v. Acheron</ref> | ||||
| 5. Dioxippe | • Electryone | Gaia | |||||
| • Phaethon<ref>The son who borrowed the chariot of Helios, but lost control and plunged into the river Eridanus.</ref> | Perse Template:Nobr |
• Calypso | Template:Small | • Aethon<ref>In Suidas "Aithon", he chopped Demeter's sacred grove and was forever famished for that (compare the myth of Erysichthon).</ref> | |||
| • Astris<ref>In Nonnus Dionysiaca 17.269, wife of the river-god Hydaspes in India, mother of Deriades.</ref> | • Aeëtes | Template:Small | • Aix<ref>In Hyginus De astronomia 2.13, a nymph with a beautiful body and a horrible face.</ref> | ||||
| • Lampetia | • Perses | Template:Small | • Aloeus<ref>In Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1.1, ruler over Asopia.</ref> | ||||
| Rhode Template:Small |
• Phaethon | • Circe | Template:Small | • Camirus<ref>In Hyginus, Fabulae 275, founder of Camirus, a city in Rhodes.</ref> | |||
| Prote Template:Small |
• Pasiphaë | Template:Small | • Ichnaea<ref>Lycophron, Alexandra 128 (pp. 504, 505).</ref> | ||||
| • The Heliades | • Aloeus | Template:Small | • Mausolus<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 25</ref> | ||||
| Neaera Template:Small |
• Phaethusa | Asterope<ref>Argonautica Orphica 1217</ref> | • Aeëtes | Template:Small | • Phorbas<ref>Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Ambrakia</ref> | ||
| • Lampetia<ref>Guardians of the cattle of Thrinacia (Homer, Odyssey 12.128).</ref><ref>In Ovid's Metamorphoses 2.340, these two are listed among the children of Clymene.</ref> | • Circe | Template:Small | • Sterope<ref>John Tzetzes on Lycophron, 886</ref><ref>Scholia on Pindar, Pythian Odes 4.57, in which she is also described as "sister to Pasiphaë", perhaps implying they also share a mother as well, either Perse or Crete.</ref> | ||||
| Ocyrrhoe Template:Nobr |
• Phasis | Ceto Template:Small |
• Astris<ref>Nonnus, Dionysiaca 26.351, contradicting his previous statement that has Clymene as Astris' mother.</ref> | Template:Small | • Eos<ref>Mesomedes, Hymn to the Sun 1. Eos, much like her sister Selene, is usually said to be Helios' sister instead in various other sources, rather than his daughter.</ref> | ||
| Leda<ref>Ptolemaeus Chennus, New History Book IV, as epitomized by Patriarch Photius in Myriobiblon 190. Usually Helen is the daughter of Leda by Zeus; in some versions her mother is Nemesis, again by Zeus.</ref> | • Helen | Leucothoe<ref name=":1" /><ref>Hyginus, Fabulae 14.4. Either this Leucothoe or another is the mother of Thersanon according to Hyginus.</ref> or | • Thersanon | Template:Small | • Selene<ref>Euripides, The Phoenician Women 175 ff.; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44.191. Just like her sister Eos, she's more commonly said to be Helios' sister rather than his daughter.</ref> | ||
| Clytie Template:Small |
• Template:Small | Leucothea<ref>Hyginus, Fabulae 14.4. Either this Leucothoe or another is the mother of Thersanon according to Hyginus.</ref> | Template:Small | • Hemera<ref>Pindar, O.2.32; Scholia on Pindar's Olympian Odes 2.58; more often the daughter of Nyx and Erebus.</ref> | |||
| Selene | • The Horae Template:Small |
Crete<ref>Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.60.4</ref><ref name="4.361">Tzetzes, Chiliades 4.361</ref> | • Pasiphae | Template:Small | • Dirce<ref>Bell, s. v. Dirce (1)</ref> | ||
| Template:Small<ref>Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library 4.45.1</ref> | • Aeëtes | Template:Small | • Clymenus<ref name=":fb154" /> | Template:Small | • Lelex<ref>Beck, p. 59</ref> | ||
| • Perses | Template:Small | • Chrysus<ref>Scholia on Pindar's Odes I.5.3; "The Sun came from Theia and Hyperion, and from the Sun came gold". Pindar himself described Chrysus/Gold as a son of Zeus.</ref> | |||||
| Template:Small | • Cos<ref>Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Things 30</ref> | Template:Small | • Cronus<ref>Meisner, p. 31</ref> (Template:Small) |
- Anaxibia, an Indian Naiad, was lusted after by Helios according to Pseudo-Plutarch.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 3.3. Pseudo-Plutarch attributes this story to Clitophon the Rhodian's Indica, perhaps recording an Indian tale using the names of the Greek gods.</ref>
WorshipEdit
CultEdit
Archaic and Classical AthensEdit
Scholarly focus on the ancient Greek cults of Helios has generally been rather slim, partially due to how scarce both literary and archaeological sources are.<ref name=":gender" /> L.R. Farnell assumed "that sun-worship had once been prevalent and powerful among the people of the pre-Hellenic culture, but that very few of the communities of the later historic period retained it as a potent factor of the state religion".<ref>Farnell, L.R. (1909) The Cults of the Greek States (New York/London: Oxford University Press) vol. v, p 419f.</ref> The largely Attic literary sources used by scholars present ancient Greek religion with an Athenian bias, and, according to J. Burnet, "no Athenian could be expected to worship Helios or Selene, but he might think them to be gods, since Helios was the great god of Rhodes and Selene was worshiped at Elis and elsewhere".<ref>J. Burnet, Plato: Euthyphro, Apology of Socrates, and Crito (New York/London: Oxford University Press) 1924, p. 111.</ref>Aristophanes' Peace (406–413) contrasts the worship of Helios and Selene with that of the more essentially Greek Twelve Olympians.<ref>Notopoulos 1942:265.</ref>
The tension between the mainstream traditional religious veneration of Helios, which had become enriched with ethical values, poetical symbolism,<ref>Notopoulos 1942 instances Aeschylus' Agamemnon 508, Choephoroe 993, Suppliants 213, and Sophocles' Oedipus Rex 660 and 1425.</ref> and the Ionian proto-scientific examination of the sun, clashed in the trial of Anaxagoras c. 450 BC, in which Anaxagoras asserted that the Sun was in fact a gigantic red-hot ball of metal.<ref>Anaxagoras biography</ref>
Hellenistic periodEdit
Helios was not worshipped in Athens until the Hellenistic period, in post-classical times.<ref>Ogden, p. 200</ref> His worship might be described as a product of the Hellenistic era, influenced perhaps by the general spread of cosmic and astral beliefs during the reign of Alexander III.<ref name=":hoffie">Hoffmann, Herbert. "Helios." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2 (1963): 117–24.</ref> A scholiast on Sophocles wrote that the Athenians did not offer wine as an offering to the Helios among other gods, making instead nephalia, or wineless, sober sacrifices;<ref>Scholia ad Sophocli Oedipus at Colonus 91; Xenis p. 72</ref><ref>Robert E. Meagher, p. 142</ref> Athenaeus also reported that those who sacrificed to him did not offer wine, but brought honey instead, to the altars reasoning that the god who held the cosmos in order should not succumb to drunkenness.<ref>Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 25.48</ref>
Lysimachides in the first century BC or first century AD reported of a festival Skira:
that the skiron is a large sunshade under which the priestess of Athena, the priest of Poseidon, and the priest of Helios walk as it is carried from the acropolis to a place called Skiron.<ref>Ogden, p. 200 [=FGrH 366 fr. 3].</ref>
During the Thargelia, a festival in honour of Apollo, the Athenians had cereal offerings for Helios and the Horae.<ref>Farnell, p. 19, 143. vol. IV</ref> They were honoured with a procession, due to their clear connections and relevance to agriculture.<ref>Parker, p. 417</ref><ref name=":harr">Harrison, p. 79; a scholiast says "At the Pyanepsia and the Thargelia the Athenians hold a feast to Helios and the Horae, and the boys carry about branches twined with wool,"</ref><ref name=":park204">Parker, p. 204</ref><ref>Gardner and Jevons, p. 294</ref> Helios and the Horae were also apparently worshipped during another Athenian festival held in honor of Apollo, the Pyanopsia, with a feast;Template:Sfn<ref name=":harr" /> an attested procession, independent from the one recorded at the Thargelia, might have been in their honour.<ref name=":park203">Parker, p. 203, note 52: "Deubner [...] and Σ. vet. Ar. Plut. 1054c treat the Thargelia (and Pyanopsia) as festivals of the Sun and Seasons. Once could on that basis equally well link the Sun and Seasons processions with Pyanopsia, but it is neater to identify it with the attested Thargelia procession and leave the Pyanopsia free for the boys' roamings with the eiresione."</ref>
Side B of LSCG 21.B19 from the Piraeus Asclepium prescribe cake offerings to several gods, among them Helios and Mnemosyne,<ref>Lupu, p. 64</ref> two gods linked to incubation through dreams,<ref>Miles, p. 112</ref> who are offered a type of honey cake called arester and a honeycomb.<ref>Mnemosyne at the Asklepieia, Stephen P. Ahearne-Kroll, Classical Philology, Vol. 109, No. 2 (April 2014), pp. 99-118; The University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref>CGRN File 54</ref> The cake was put on fire during the offering.<ref>Bekker, p. 215, vol. I</ref> A type of cake called orthostates<ref>Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}</ref><ref>Julius Pollux 6.74</ref> made of wheaten and barley flour was offered to him and the Hours.<ref>Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food 2.7</ref><ref name=":liknon">Allaire Brumfield, Cakes in the Liknon: Votives from the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on Acrocorinth, Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens Vol. 66, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1997), pp. 147-172, The American School of Classical Studies at Athens.</ref> Phthois, another flat cake<ref>Patriarch Photius s. v. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}</ref> made with cheese, honey and wheat was also offered to him among many other gods.<ref name=":liknon" />
In many places people kept herds of red and white cattle in his honour, and white animals of several kinds, but especially white horses, were considered to be sacred to him.<ref name=":seyf" /> Ovid writes that horses were sacrificed to him because no slow animal should be offered to the swift god.<ref>Ovid, Fasti 1.385–386</ref>
In Plato's Republic Helios, the Sun, is the symbolic offspring of the idea of the Good.<ref>Plato, The Republic 7.517b–7.517c</ref>
The ancient Greeks called Sunday "day of the Sun" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) after him.<ref>Martin, p. 302; Olderr, p. 98; Barnhart (1995:778).</ref> According to Philochorus, Athenian historian and Atthidographer of the 3rd century BC, the first day of each month was sacred to Helios.<ref>Philochorus 181; Müller, s. v. Sol, Hyperionis</ref>
It was during the Roman period that Helios actually rose into an actual significant religious figure and was elevated in public cult.<ref>Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. Helios, "But it was not until the later Roman empire that Helios/*Sol grew into a figure of central importance in actual cult."</ref><ref name=":hoffie" />
RhodesEdit
.jpg){kind=link}
The island of Rhodes was an important cult center for Helios, one of the only places where he was worshipped as a major deity in ancient Greece.<ref>Burkert, p. 174</ref>Template:Sfn One of Pindar's most notable greatest odes is an abiding memorial of the devotion of the island of Rhodes to the cult and personality of Helios, and all evidence points that he was for the Rhodians what Olympian Zeus was for Elis or Athena for the Athenians; their local myths, especially those concerning the Heliadae, suggest that Helios in Rhodes was revered as the founder of their race and their civilization.<ref>Farnell, p. 418, vol. V</ref>
The worship of Helios at Rhodes included a ritual in which a quadriga, or chariot drawn by four horses, was driven over a precipice into the sea, in reenactment to the myth of Phaethon. Annual gymnastic tournaments were held in Helios' honor;<ref name=":seyf">Template:Cite book</ref> according to Festus (s. v. October Equus) during the Halia each year the Rhodians would also throw quadrigas dedicated to him into the sea.<ref>Parker, p. 138</ref><ref>Farnell, p. 20, vol. IV</ref><ref>Gardner and Jevons, p. 247</ref> Horse sacrifice was offered to him in many places, but only in Rhodes in teams of four; a team of four horses was also sacrificed to Poseidon in Illyricum, and the sea god was also worshipped in Lindos under the epithet Hippios, denoting perhaps a blending of the cults.<ref name=":riat73">Rhodes in Ancient Times, p. 73</ref>
It was believed that if one sacrificed to the rising Sun with their day's work ahead of them, it would be proper to offer a fresh, bright white horse.<ref>Harrison, Jane E. "Helios-Hades." The Classical Review, vol. 22, no. 1, Classical Association, Cambridge University Press, 1908, pp. 12–16</ref>
The Colossus of Rhodes was dedicated to him. In Xenophon of Ephesus' work of fiction, Ephesian Tale of Anthia and Habrocomes, the protagonist Anthia cuts and dedicates some of her hair to Helios during his festival at Rhodes.<ref>Xenophon of Ephesus, Ephesian Tale pp. 107-108; Dillon 2002, p. 216</ref> The Rhodians called shrine of Helios, Haleion (Template:Langx).<ref>Suda, alpha, 1155</ref>
A colossal statue of the god, known as the Colossus of Rhodes and named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was erected in his honour and adorned the port of the city of Rhodes.<ref>Hemingway, p. 36</ref>
The best of these are, first, the Colossus of Helius, of which the author of the iambic verse says, "seven times ten cubits in height, the work of Chares the Lindian"; but it now lies on the ground, having been thrown down by an earthquake and broken at the knees. In accordance with a certain oracle, the people did not raise it again.<ref>Strabo, Geography 14.2.5</ref>
According to most contemporary descriptions, the Colossus stood approximately 70 cubits, or Template:Convert high – approximately the height of the modern Statue of Liberty from feet to crown – making it the tallest statue in the ancient world.<ref>Higgins, Reynold (1988) "The Colossus of Rhodes" p. 130, in The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Peter A. Clayton and Martin Jessop Price (eds.). Psychology Press, Template:ISBN.</ref> It collapsed after an earthquake that hit Rhodes in 226 BC, and the Rhodians did not build it again, in accordance with an oracle.
In Rhodes, Helios seems to have absorbed the worship and cult of the island's local hero and mythical founder Tlepolemus.<ref name=":ekr1">Ekroth, p. 210</ref> In ancient Greek city foundation, the use of the archegetes in its double sense of both founder and progenitor of a political order, or a polis, can be seen with Rhodes; real prominence was transferred from the local hero Tlepolemus, onto the god, Helios, with an appropriate myth explaining his relative insignificance; thus games originally celebrated for Tlepolemus were now given to Helios, who was seen as both ancestor and founder of the polis.<ref>Malkin, p. 245</ref> A sanctuary of Helios and the nymphs stood in Loryma near Lindos.<ref>Larson 2001, p. 207</ref>
The priesthood of Helios was, at some point, appointed by lot, though in the great city a man and his two sons held the office of priesthood for the sun god in succession.<ref>Rhodes in Ancient Times, p. 83</ref>
PeloponneseEdit
The scattering of cults in Sicyon, Argos, Hermione, Epidaurus and Laconia seem to suggest that Helios was considerably important in Dorian religion, compared to other parts of ancient Greece. It may have been the Dorians who brought his worship to Rhodes.<ref name=":largdn2">Larson, Jennifer. "A Land Full of Gods: Nature Deities in Greek Religion". In Ogden, Daniel. A Companion to Greek Religion. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, 56–70.</ref>
Helios was an important god in Corinth and the greater Corinthia region.<ref name=":ogd4">Ogden, p. 204</ref> Pausanias in his Description of Greece describes how Helios and Poseidon vied over the city, with Poseidon getting the isthmus of Corinth and Helios being awarded with the Acrocorinth.<ref name=":p215" /> Helios' prominence in Corinth might go as back as Mycenaean times, and predate Poseidon's arrival,<ref name=":farn19">Farnell, p. 419, vol. V</ref> or it might be due to Oriental immigration.Template:Sfn At Sicyon, Helios had an altar behind Hera's sanctuary.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.11.1</ref> It would seem that for the Corinthians, Helios was notable enough to even have control over thunder, which is otherwise the domain of the sky god Zeus.<ref name=":gender" />
Helios had a cult in Laconia as well. Taletos, a peak of Mt. Taygetus, was sacred to Helios.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.20.4</ref><ref>Nagy, p. 100 n. 70</ref> At Thalamae, Helios together with his daughter Pasiphaë were revered in an oracle, where the goddess revealed to the people consulting her what they needed to know in their dreams.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.26.1</ref><ref name=":farn19" /> While the predominance of Helios in Sparta is currently unclear, it seems Helen was the local solar deity.<ref>Euripides, Robert E. Meagher, Helen, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1986</ref> Helios (and Selene's) worship in Gytheum, near Sparta, is attested by an inscription (C.I.G. 1392).<ref>The Classical Review, p. 77, vol. 7</ref>
In Argolis, an altar was dedicated to Helios near Mycenae,<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.18.3</ref> and another in Troezen, where he was worshipped as the God of Freedom, seeing how the Troezenians had escaped slavery at the hands of Xerxes I.<ref name=":2315" /> Over at Hermione stood a temple of his.<ref name=":farn19" /><ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.34.10</ref><ref>Vermaseren, p. 150; CIG Pel. I = IG IV, 12, 700.</ref> He appears to have also been venerated in Epidaurus.<ref>Vermaseren, p. 149</ref>
In Arcadia, he had a cult in Megalopolis as the Saviour, and an altar near Mantineia.<ref>Farnell, p. 420, Vol. V; Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.9.4</ref>
ElsewhereEdit
Traces of Helios's worship can also be found in Crete. In the earliest period Rhodes stood in close relations with Crete, and it is relatively safe to suggest that the name "Taletos" is associated with the Eteocretan word for the sun "Talos", surviving in Zeus' epithet Tallaios,<ref name=":farn19" /> a solar aspect of the thunder god in Crete.<ref name=":kk" /><ref name=":hest">Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Template:Mvar</ref> Helios was also invoked in an oath of alliance between Knossos and Dreros.<ref>Farnell, note 40, vol. V</ref>
In his little-attested cults in Asia Minor it seems his identification with Apollo was the strongest.<ref>Farnell, p. 138, vol. IV</ref>Template:Sfn<ref>Conon, Narrations 33</ref> It is possible that the solar elements of Apollo's Anatolian cults were influenced by Helios' cult in Rhodes, as Rhodes lies right off the southwest coast of Asia Minor.Template:Sfn
Archaeological evidence has proven the existence of a shrine to Helios and Hemera, the goddess of the day and daylight, at the island of Kos<ref name=":farn19" /> and excavations have revealed traces of his cult at Sinope, Pozzuoli, Ostia and elsewhere.<ref name=":hoffie" /> After a plague hit the city of Cleonae, in Phocis, Central Greece, the people there sacrificed a he-goat to Helios, and were reportedly then spared from the plague.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 10.11.5</ref>
Helios also had a cult in the region of Thessaly.<ref name=":miller">Miller, pp 33–35</ref> Plato in his Laws mentions the state of the Magnetes making a joint offering to Helios and Apollo, indicating a close relationship between the cults of those two gods,<ref>Plato, Laws 12.946b-e</ref> but it is clear that they were nevertheless distinct deities in Thessaly.<ref name=":miller" />
Helios is also depicted on first century BC coins found at Halicarnassus,<ref>British Museum Catalogue 'Caria'. pp 106-107</ref> Syracuse in Sicily<ref>British Museum Catalogue 'Sicily'. p 229</ref> and at Zacynthus.<ref>British Museum Catalogue 'Peloponnese'. p 101</ref> From Pergamon originates a hymn to Helios in the style of Euripides.<ref>Farnell, note 44, vol. V</ref>
In Apollonia he was also venerated, as evidenced from Herodotus' account where a man named Evenius was harshly punished by his fellow citizens for allowing wolves to devour the flock of sheep sacred to the god out of negligence.<ref name=":hh993" />
The Alexander Romance names a temple of Helios in the city of Alexandria.<ref>Nawotka, p. 109</ref>
Other functionsEdit
In oath-keepingEdit
Gods were often called upon by the Greeks when an oath was sworn; Helios is among the three deities to be invoked in the Iliad to witness the truce between Greeks and Trojans.<ref>Warrior, p. 10</ref> He is also often appealed to in ancient drama to witness the unfolding events or take action, such as in Oedipus Rex and Medea.<ref>Fletcher, pp 116 and 186</ref> The notion of Helios as witness to oaths and vows also led to a view of Helios as a witness of wrong-doings.<ref>Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 88–94</ref><ref>Smith Helaine, p. 42</ref><ref>van der Toorn et al, s.v. Helios, p. 396</ref> He was thus seen as a guarantor of cosmic order.<ref>Toorn et al, s.v. Helios p. 397</ref>
Helios was invoked as a witness to several alliances such as the one between Athens and Cetriporis, Lyppeus of Paeonia and Grabus, and the oaths of the League of Corinth.<ref name=":sombay">Sommerstein, Bayliss, p. 162</ref> In a treaty between the cities of Smyrna and Magnesia, the Magnesians swore their oath by Helios among others.<ref>Gardner and Jevons, p. 232; A treaty between Smyrna and Magnesia-by-Sipylos OGIS: 229</ref> The combination of Zeus, Gaia and Helios in oath-swearing is also found among the non-Greek 'Royal Gods' in an agreement between Maussollus and Phaselis (360s BC) and in the Hellenistic period with the degree of Chremonides' announcing the alliance of Athens and Sparta.<ref name=":sombay" />
In magicEdit
He also had a role in necromancy magic. The Greek Magical Papyri contain several recipes for such, for example one which involves invoking the Sun over the skull-cup of a man who suffered a violent death; after the described ritual, Helios will then send the man's ghost to the practitioner to tell them everything they wish to know.<ref>Ogden 2001, p. 211</ref> Helios is also associated with Hecate in cursing magic.<ref name=":queen">Sharynne MacLeod NicMhacha, Queen of the Night: Rediscovering the Celtic Moon Goddess, Weiser Books, 2005; pp 62-63; Template:ISBN.</ref> In some parts of Asia Minor Helios was adjured not to permit any violation of the grave in tomb inscriptions and to warn potential violators not to desecrate the tomb, like one example from Elaeussa-Sebaste in Cilicia:
We adjure you by the heavenly god [Zeus] and Helios and Selene and the gods of the underworld, who receive us, that no one [. . .] will throw another corpse upon our bones.<ref name="farob">Faraone and Obbink, p. 35</ref>
Helios was also often invoked in funeral imprecations.<ref name=":fnimp">Faraone and Obbink, p. 46</ref> Helios might have been chosen for this sort of magic because as an all-seeing god he could see everything on earth, even hidden crimes, and thus he was a very popular god to invoke in prayers for vengeance.<ref name=":fnimp" /> Additionally, in ancient magic evil-averting aid and apotropaic defense were credited to Helios.<ref>Collins, p. 128</ref> Some magic rituals were associated with the engraving of images and stones, as with one such spell which asks Helios to consecrate the stone and fill with luck, honour, success and strength, thus giving the user incredible power.<ref>HALUSZKA, ADRIA. "SACRED SIGNIFIED: THE SEMIOTICS OF STATUES IN THE 'GREEK MAGICAL PAPYRI.'" Arethusa, vol. 41, no. 3, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008, pp. 479–94</ref>
Helios was also associated with love magic, much like Aphrodite, as there seems to have been another but rather poorly documented tradition of people asking him for help in such love matters,<ref>Faraone, p. 139</ref> including homosexual love<ref>Faraone, p. 141</ref> and magical recipes invoking him for affection spells.<ref>Faraone, p. 105</ref>
In dreamsEdit
It has been suggested that in Ancient Greece people would reveal their dreams to Helios and the sky or the air in order to avert any evil foretold or presaged in them.<ref>Euripides, Iphigenia Among the Taurians 42–45: But the strange visions which the night brought with it, I will tell to the air, if that is any relief. I dreamed that I had left this land to live in Argos,</ref><ref>Cropp, p.176</ref>
According to Artemidorus' Oneirocritica, the rich dreaming of transforming into a god was an auspicious sign, as long as the transformation had no deficiencies, citing the example of a man who dreamt he was Helios but wore a sun crown of just eleven rays.<ref name=":thon" /> He wrote that the sun god was also an auspicious sign for the poor.<ref>Thonemann, p. 146</ref> In dreams, Helios could either appear in 'sensible' form (the orb of the sun) or his 'intelligible' form (the humanoid god).<ref>Thonemann, p. 151</ref>
Late antiquityEdit
By Late Antiquity, Helios had accumulated a number of religious, mythological, and literary elements from other deities, particularly Apollo and the Roman sun god Sol. In 274 AD, on December 25, the Roman Emperor Aurelian instituted an official state cult to Sol Invictus (or Helios Megistos, "Great Helios"). This new cult drew together imagery not only associated with Helios and Sol, but also a number of syncretic elements from other deities formerly recognized as distinct.<ref>Wilhelm Fauth, Helios Megistos: zur synkretistischen Theologie der Spätantike (Leiden:Brill) 1995.</ref> Helios in these works is frequently equated not only with deities such as Mithras and Harpocrates, but even with the monotheistic Judaeo-Christian god.<ref>Pachoumi, Eleni, "The Religious and Philosophical Assimilations of Helios in the Greek Magical Papyri", in Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, vol. 55, pp. 391–413. PDF.</ref>
The last pagan emperor of Rome, Julian, made Helios the primary deity of his revived pagan religion, which combined elements of Mithraism with Neoplatonism. For Julian, Helios was a triunity: The One; Helios-Mithras; and the Sun. Because the primary location of Helios in this scheme was the "middle" realm, Julian considered him to be a mediator and unifier not just of the three realms of being, but of all things.<ref name="julian_works">Template:Cite book</ref> Julian's theological conception of Helios has been described as "practically monotheistic", in contrast to earlier Neoplatonists like Iamblichus.<ref name="julian_works" />
A mosaic found in the Vatican Necropolis (mausoleum M) depicts a figure very similar in style to Sol / Helios, crowned with solar rays and driving a solar chariot. Some scholars have interpreted this as a depiction of Christ, noting that Clement of Alexandria wrote of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Some scholars doubt the Christian associations,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or suggest that the figure is merely a non-religious representation of the sun.Template:Sfn
In the Greek Magical PapyriEdit
Helios figured prominently in the Greek Magical Papyri. In these mostly fragmentary texts, Helios is credited with a broad domain, being regarded as the creator of life, the lord of the heavens and the cosmos, and the god of the sea. He is said to take the form of 12 animals representing each hour of the day, a motif also connected with the 12 signs of the zodiac.<ref name="Pachoumi">Pachoumi, Eleni. 2015. "The Religious and Philosophical Assimilations of Helios in the Greek Magical Papyri." Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 55: 391–413.</ref>
The Papyri often syncretize Helios with a variety of related deities. He is described as "seated on a lotus, decorated with rays", in the manner of Harpocrates, who was often depicted seated on a lotus flower, representing the rising sun.<ref>On the Mysteries of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Assyrians 7.2, 251–252.</ref><ref name="Pachoumi" />
Helios is also assimilated with Mithras in some of the Papyri, as he was by Emperor Julian. The Mithras Liturgy combines them as Helios-Mithras, who is said to have revealed the secrets of immortality to the magician who wrote the text. Some of the texts describe Helios-Mithras navigating the Sun's path not in a chariot but in a boat, an apparent identification with the Egyptian sun god Ra. Helios is also described as "restraining the serpent", likely a reference to Apophis, the serpent god who, in Egyptian myth, is said to attack Ra's ship during his nightly journey through the underworld.<ref name=Pachoumi/>
In many of the Papyri, Helios is also strongly identified with Iao, a name derived from that of the Hebrew god Yahweh, and shares several of his titles including Sabaoth and Adonai.<ref name=Pachoumi/> He is also assimilated as the Agathos Daemon, who is also identified elsewhere in the texts as "the greatest god, lord Horus Harpokrates".<ref name=Pachoumi/>
The Neoplatonist philosophers Proclus and Iamblichus attempted to interpret many of the syntheses found in the Greek Magical Papyri and other writings that regarded Helios as all-encompassing, with the attributes of many other divine entities. Proclus described Helios as a cosmic god consisting of many forms and traits. These are "coiled up" within his being, and are variously distributed to all that "participate in his nature", including angels, daemons, souls, animals, herbs, and stones. All of these things were important to the Neoplatonic practice of theurgy, magical rituals intended to invoke the gods in order to ultimately achieve union with them. Iamblichus noted that theurgy often involved the use of "stones, plants, animals, aromatic substances, and other such things holy and perfect and godlike."<ref>(Myst. 5.23, 233)</ref> For theurgists, the elemental power of these items sacred to particular gods utilizes a kind of sympathetic magic.<ref name=Pachoumi/>
EpithetsEdit
.JPG){kind=link}
The Greek sun god had various bynames or epithets, which over time in some cases came to be considered separate deities associated with the Sun. Among these are:
Acamas (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Akàmas"), meaning "tireless, unwearying", as he repeats his never-ending routine day after day without cease.
Apollo (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Apóllōn") here understood to mean "destroyer", the sun as a more destructive force.<ref name=":frag" />
Callilampetes (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Kallilampétēs"), "he who glows lovely".<ref>Roscher, p. 927</ref>
Elasippus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Elásippos"), meaning "horse-driving".<ref>A Greek-English Lexicon s.v. Template:Math</ref>
Elector (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Ēléktōr") of uncertain derivation (compare Electra), often translated as "beaming" or "radiant", especially in the combination Ēlektōr Hyperiōn.<ref>Homer, Iliad 19.398</ref>
Eleutherius (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Eleuthérios) "the liberator", epithet under which he was worshipped in Troezen in Argolis,<ref name=":2315">Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.31.5</ref> also shared with Dionysus and Eros.
Hagnus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Hagnós), meaning "pure", "sacred" or "purifying."<ref name=":pin7"/>
Hecatus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Hékatos"), "from afar," also Hecatebolus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Hekatḗbolos") "the far-shooter", i.e. the sun's rays considered as arrows.<ref>Usener, p. 261</ref>
Horotrophus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Hо̄rotróphos"), "nurturer of the Seasons/Hours", in combination with kouros, "youth".<ref>A Greek-English Lexicon s.v. ὡροτρόφος</ref>
Hyperion (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Hyperíōn") and Hyperionides (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Hyperionídēs"), "superus, high up" and "son of Hyperion" respectively, the sun as the one who is above,<ref>Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Template:Mvar</ref> and also the name of his father.
Isodaetes (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Isodaítēs"), literally "he that distributes equal portions", cult epithet also shared with Dionysus.<ref>Versnel, p. 119, especially note 93.</ref>
Paean (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Paiān), physician, healer, a healing god and an epithet of Apollo and Asclepius.<ref>See παιών in LSJ</ref>
Panoptes (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Panóptēs") "all-seeing" and Pantepoptes (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Pantepóptēs") "all-supervising", as the one who witnessed everything that happened on earth.
Pasiphaes (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Pasiphaḗs"), "all-shining", also the name of one of his daughters.<ref name=":walt">Walton, p. 34</ref>
Patrius (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Pátrios") "of the fathers, ancestral", related to his role as primogenitor of royal lines in several places.<ref name="farob"/>
Phaethon (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Phaéthōn") "the radiant", "the shining", also the name of his son and daughter.
Phasimbrotus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Phasímbrotos") "he who sheds light to the mortals", the sun.
Philonamatus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Philonámatos") "water-loving", a reference to him rising from and setting in the ocean.<ref>Orphic Hymn 8 to the Sun 16</ref>
Phoebus (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Phoîbos), literally "bright", several Roman authors applied Apollo's byname to their sun god Sol.
Sirius (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Seírios") literally meaning "scorching", and also the name of the Dog Star.<ref>Archilochus 61.3; Scholia on Euripides' Hecuba 1103</ref><ref name=":dig138">Diggle p. 138</ref>
Soter (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Sōtḗr") "the saviour", epithet under which he was worshipped in Megalopolis, Arcadia.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.31.7</ref>
Terpsimbrotus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Terpsímbrotos") "he who gladdens mortals", with his warm, life-giving beams.
Titan (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Respell; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Titán"), possibly connected to τιτώ meaning "day" and thus "god of the day".<ref>See τιτώ and Τιτάν in LSJ</ref>
Whether Apollo's epithets Aegletes and Asgelatas in the island of Anaphe, both connected to light, were borrowed from epithets of Helios either directly or indirectly is hard to say.<ref name=":walt"/>
Identification with other godsEdit
ApolloEdit
Helios is sometimes identified with Apollo: "Different names may refer to the same being," Walter Burkert argues, "or else they may be consciously equated, as in the case of Apollo and Helios."<ref>Walter Burkert, Greek Religion, p. 120.</ref> Apollo was associated with the Sun as early as the fifth century BC, though widespread conflation between him and the Sun god was a later phaenomenon.<ref name=":lar07">Larson 2007, p. 158</ref> The earliest certain reference to Apollo being identified with Helios appears in the surviving fragments of Euripides' play Phaethon in a speech near the end.<ref name=":frag">Euripides, Phaethon fr. 781 Collard and Cropp = fr. 781 N2.</ref>
By Hellenistic times Apollo had become closely connected with the Sun in cult and Phoebus (Greek Φοῖβος, "bright"), the epithet most commonly given to Apollo, was later applied by Latin poets to the Sun-god Sol.
The identification became a commonplace in philosophic and some Orphic texts. Pseudo-Eratosthenes writes about Orpheus in Placings Among the Stars, section 24:
- But having gone down into Hades because of his wife and seeing what sort of things were there, he did not continue to worship Dionysus, because of whom he was famous, but he thought Helios to be the greatest of the gods, Helios whom he also addressed as Apollo. Rousing himself each night toward dawn and climbing the mountain called Pangaion, he would await the Sun's rising, so that he might see it first. Therefore, Dionysus, being angry with him, sent the Bassarides, as Aeschylus the tragedian says; they tore him apart and scattered the limbs.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Dionysus and Asclepius are sometimes also identified with this Apollo Helios.<ref>G. Lancellotti, Attis, Between Myth and History: King, Priest, and God, BRILL, 2002</ref><ref>Guthrie, p. 43, says "The Orphics never had the power to bring it about, but it was their purpose to foster it, and in their syncretistic literature they identified the two gods [i.e. Apollo and Dionysus] by giving out that both alike were Helios, the Sun. Helios = supreme god = Dionysus = Apollo (cp. Kern, Orpheus, 7). So at least the later writers say. Olympiodoros (O.F. 212) speaks of 'Helios, who according to Orpheus has much in common with Dionysos through the medium of Apollo', and according to Proklos (O.F. 172) 'Orpheus makes Helios very much the same as Apollo, and worship the fellowship of these gods'. Helios and Dionysos are identified in Orphic lines (O.F. 236, 239)."</ref>
_-_Napoli_MAN_9449_-_02.jpg){kind=link}
Strabo wrote that Artemis and Apollo were associated with Selene and Helios respectively due to the changes those two celestial bodies caused in the temperature of the air, as the twins were gods of pestilential diseases and sudden deaths.<ref>Strabo, Geographica 14.1.6</ref> Pausanias also linked Apollo's association with Helios as a result of his profession as a healing god.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 7.23.8</ref> In the Orphic Hymns, Helios is addressed as Paean ("healer") and holding a golden lyre,<ref name=":oh8">Orphic Hymn 8 to the Sun 9–15 (Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 11).</ref><ref name=":barry"/> both common descriptions for Apollo; similarly Apollo in his own hymn is described as Titan and shedding light to the mortals, both common epithets of Helios.<ref>Orphic Hymn 34 to Apollo 3 and 8 (Athanassakis and Wolkow, pp 30–31).</ref>
According to Athenaeus, Telesilla wrote that the song sung in honour of Apollo is called the "Sun-loving song" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, philhēliás),<ref>Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 14.10</ref> that is, a song meant to make the Sun come forth from the clouds, sung by children in bad weather; but Julius Pollux describing a philhelias in greater detail makes no mention of Apollo, only Helios.<ref name=":farn137">Farnell, p. 137, vol. IV</ref> Scythinus of Teos wrote that Apollo uses the bright light of the Sun ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) as his harp-quill<ref>Scythinus fragment here in Plutarch's De Pythiae Oraculis 16.402a</ref> and in a fragment of Timotheus' lyric, Helios is invoked as an archer with the invocation {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (a common way of addressing the two medicine gods), though it most likely was part of esoteric doctrine, rather than a popular and widespread belief.<ref name=":farn137"/>
Classical Latin poets also used Phoebus as a byname for the Sun-god, whence come common references in later European poetry to Phoebus and his chariot as a metaphor for the Sun.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Ancient Roman authors who used "Phoebus" for Sol as well as Apollo include Ovid,<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.367</ref> Virgil,<ref>Virgil, Aeneid 4.6</ref> Statius,<ref>Statius, Thebaid 8.271</ref> and Seneca.<ref>Seneca, Hercules Furens 25</ref> Representations of Apollo with solar rays around his head in art also belong to the time of the Roman Empire, particularly under Emperor Elagabalus in 218-222 AD.<ref name=":mayr">Mayerson, p. 146</ref>
UsilEdit
The Etruscan god of the Sun was Usil. His name appears on the bronze liver of Piacenza, next to Tiur, the Moon.<ref>Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling, Etruscan Myths (Series The Legendary Past, British Museum/University of Texas) 2006:77.</ref> He appears, rising out of the sea, with a fireball in either outstretched hand, on an engraved Etruscan bronze mirror in late Archaic style.<ref>Noted by Template:Cite journal</ref> On Etruscan mirrors in Classical style, he appears with a halo. In ancient artwork, Usil is shown in close association with Thesan, the goddess of the dawn, something almost never seen with Helios and Eos,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> however in the area between Cetona and Chiusi a stone obelisk is found, whose relief decorations seem to have been interpreted as referring to a solar sanctuary: what appears to be a Sun boat, the heads of Helios and Thesan, and a cock, likewise referring to the Sunrise.<ref>Fischer-Hansen and Poulsen, p. 281</ref>
ZeusEdit
Helios is also sometimes conflated in classical literature with the highest Olympian god, Zeus. An attested cult epithet of Zeus is Aleios Zeus, or "Zeus the Sun," from the Doric form of Helios' name.<ref>"Aleion." Suda On Line. Trans. Jennifer Benedict on 17 April 2000.</ref> The inscribed base of Mammia's dedication to Helios and Zeus Meilichios, dating from the fourth or third century BC, is a fairly and unusually early evidence of the conjoint worship of Helios and Zeus.<ref>Lalonde, p. 82</ref> According to Plutarch, Helios is Zeus in his material form that one can interact with, and that's why Zeus owns the year,<ref>Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae Why do they believe that the year belongs to Jupiter, but the months to Juno?</ref> while the chorus in Euripides' Medea also link him to Zeus when they refer to Helios as "light born from Zeus".<ref>Euripides, Medea 1258; The Play of Texts and Fragments: Essays in Honour of Martin Cropp by J. Robert C. Cousland, James, 2009, p. 161</ref> In his Orphic Hymn, Helios is addressed as "immortal Zeus".<ref name=":oh8"/> In Crete, the cult of Zeus Tallaios had incorporated several solar elements into his worship; "Talos" was the local equivalent of Helios.<ref name=":kk">Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:110.</ref> Helios is referred either directly as Zeus' eye,<ref>Sick, David H. (2004) "Mit(h)ra(s) and the myths of the Sun", Numen, 51 (4): 432–467, Template:JSTOR</ref> or clearly implied to be. For instance, Hesiod effectively describes Zeus's eye as the Sun.<ref>Bortolani, Ljuba Merlina (2016-10-13) Magical Hymns from Roman Egypt: A study of Greek and Egyptian traditions of divinity, Cambridge University Press.</ref> This perception is possibly derived from earlier Proto-Indo-European religion, in which the Sun is believed to have been envisioned as the eye of *Dyḗus Pḥatḗr (see Hvare-khshaeta). An Orphic saying, supposedly given by an oracle of Apollo, goes:
- "Zeus, Hades, Helios-Dionysus, three gods in one godhead!"
The Hellenistic period gave birth to Serapis, a Greco-Egyptian deity conceived by the Greeks as a chthonic aspect of Zeus, whose solar nature is indicated by the Sun crown and rays the Greeks depicted him with.<ref name=":co188">Cook, pp 188–189</ref> Frequent joint dedications to "Zeus-Serapis-Helios" have been found all over the Mediterranean.<ref name=":co188" /><ref>Cook, p. 190</ref><ref>Cook, p. 193</ref><ref>Manoledakis, Manolis. "A Proposal Relating to a Votive Inscription to Zeus Helios from Pontus." Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik 173 (2010): 116–18.</ref><ref>Elmaghrabi, Mohamed G. "A Dedication to Zeus Helios Megas Sarapis on a 'Gazophylakion' from Alexandria." Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik 200 (2016): 219–28.</ref> There is evidence of Zeus being worshipped as a solar god in the Aegean island of Amorgos which, if correct, could mean that Sun elements in Zeus' worship could be as early as the fifth century BC.<ref>Cook, p. 194</ref>
.png){kind=link}
HadesEdit
Helios seems to have been connected to some degree with Hades, the god of the Underworld. A dedicatory inscription from Smyrna describes a 1st–2nd century sanctuary to "God Himself" as the most exalted of a group of six deities, including clothed statues of Plouton Helios and Koure Selene, or in other words "Pluto the Sun" and "Kore the Moon".<ref>Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 101ff</ref> Roman poet Apuleius describes a rite in which the Sun appears at midnight to the initiate at the gates of Proserpina; the suggestion here is that this midnight Sun could be Plouton Helios.<ref>Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 111.</ref> Pluto-Helios seems to reflect the Egyptian idea of the nocturnal Sun that penetrated the realm of the dead.<ref>Nilsson 1906, p. 428</ref>
An old oracle from Claros said that the names of Zeus, Hades, Helios, Dionysus and Jao all represented the Sun at different seasons.<ref>Inman, p. 29</ref> Macrobius wrote that Iao/Jao is "Hades in winter, Zeus in spring, Helios in summer, and Iao in autumn."<ref>Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.18.19; Dillon, p. 343</ref>
CronusEdit
Diodorus Siculus reported that the Chaldeans called Cronus (Saturnus) by the name Helios, or the Sun, and he explained that this was because Saturn was the "most conspicuous" of the planets.<ref>"epiphanestaton" – "most conspicuous" noted in Diodorus Siculus II. 30. 3–4. See also Franz Boll (1919) Kronos-Helios, Archiv für Religionswissenschaft XIX, p. 344.</ref>
MithrasEdit
Helios is frequently conflated with Mithras in iconography, as well as being worshipped alongside him as Helios-Mithras.<ref name="julian_works" /> The earliest artistic representations of the "chariot god" come from the Parthian period (3rd century) in Persia where there is evidence of rituals being performed for the sun god by Magi, indicating an assimilation of the worship of Helios and Mithras.<ref name="Pachoumi" />
IconographyEdit
Depiction and symbolsEdit
_-_08.JPG){kind=link}
The earliest depictions of Helios in a humanoid form date from the late sixth and early fifth centuries BC in Attic black-figure vases, and typically show him frontally as a bearded man on his chariot with a sun disk. A red-figure on a polychrome bobbin by a follower of the Brygos painter already signifies a shift in the god's depiction, painting him as a youthful, beardless figure. In later art, he is consistently drawn as beardless and young. In it, he is typically depicted with a radiant crown,<ref>Platt, p .387</ref> with the right hand often raised, a gesture of power (which came to be a definitional feature of solar iconography), the left hand usually holding a whip or a globe.<ref name=":kraem">Kraemer, p. 165</ref>
In Rhodian coins, he was shown as a beardless god, with thick and flowing hair, surrounded by beams.<ref>Collignon, p. 178</ref> He was also presented as a young man clad in tunic, with curling hair and wearing buskins.<ref>Classical Manual, p. 572</ref> Just like Selene, who is sometimes depicted with a lunar disk rather than a crescent, Helios too has his own solar one instead of a sun crown in some depictions.<ref>Savignoni, p. 270</ref> It is likely that Helios' later image as a warrior-charioteer might be traced back to the Mycenaean period;<ref>Paipetis, p. 365</ref> the symbol of the disc of the sun is displayed in scenes of rituals from both Mycenae and Tiryns, and large amounts of chariots used by the Mycenaeans are recorded in Linear B tablets.<ref>Paipetis, p. 357</ref>
In archaic art, Helios rising in his chariot was a type of motive.<ref>Savignoni, p. 267</ref> Helios in ancient pottery is usually depicted rising from the sea in his four-horse chariot, either as a single figure or connecting to some myth, indicating that it takes place at dawn. An Attic black-figure vase shows Heracles sitting on the shores of the Ocean river, while next to him a pair of arrows protrude from Helios, crowned with a solar disk and driving his chariot.<ref>See the vase here.</ref>
Helios adorned the east pediment of the Parthenon, along with Selene.<ref>Neils, pp 236–237</ref><ref>Palagia, pp 18–19</ref> Helios (again with Selene) also framed the birth of Aphrodite on the base of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia,<ref>Robertson, Martin 1981, p. 96</ref><ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 5.11.8</ref> the Judgement of Paris,<ref>Robertson 1992, p. 255</ref> and possibly the birth of Pandora on the base of the Athena Parthenos statue.<ref>Morris, p. 87</ref> They were also featured in the pedimental group of the temple at Delphi.<ref>The Nineteenth Century Vol. 17, p. 671</ref> In dynamic Hellenistic art, Helios along with other luminary deities and Rhea-Cybele, representing reason, battle the Giants (who represent irrationality).<ref>Roberts, p. 215</ref>
In Elis, he was depicted with rays coming out of his head in an image made of wood with gilded clothing and marble head, hands and feet.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 6.24.6</ref> Outside the market of the city of Corinth stood a gateway on which stood two gilded chariots; one carrying Helios' son Phaethon, the other Helios himself.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.3.2</ref>
Helios appears infrequently in gold jewelry before Roman times; extant examples include a gold medallion with its bust from the Gulf of Elaia in Anatolia, where he's depicted frontally with a head of unruly hair, and a golden medallion of the Pelinna necklace.
His iconography, used by the Ptolemies after representations of Alexander the Great as Alexander-Helios, came to symbolize power and epiphany, and was borrowed by several Egyptian deities in the Roman period.<ref>Riggs, p. 449</ref> Other rulers who had their portraits done with solar features include Ptolemy III Euergetes, one of the Ptolemaic kings of Egypt, of whom a bust with holes in the fillet for the sunrays and gold coins depicting him with a radiant halo on his head like Helios and holding the aegis exist.<ref>British Museum, A Guide to the Principal Coins of the Greeks 60, no. 24, pl. 34</ref><ref>C. Vermeule and D. von Bothmer, "Notes on a New Edition of Michaelis: Ancient Marbles in Great Britain." American Journal of Archaeology vol. 63, no. 2 (1959): p. 146</ref>
Late Roman eraEdit
Helios was also frequently depicted in mosaics, usually surrounded by the twelve zodiac signs and accompanied by Selene. From the third and fourth centuries CE onwards, the sun god was seen as an official imperial Roman god and thus appeared in various forms in monumental artworks. The cult of Helios/Sol had a notable function in Eretz Israel; Helios was Constantine the Great's patron, and so that ruler came to be identified with Helios.<ref name=":steiny">Steinberg, p. 144</ref> In his new capital city, Constantinople, Constantine recycled a statue of Helios to represent himself in his portrait, as Nero had done with Sol, which was not an uncommon practice among pagans.<ref>Long, p. 314</ref> A considerable portion if not the majority of Jewish Helios material dates from the 3rd through the 6th centuries CE, including numerous mosaics of the god in Jewish synagogues and invocation in papyri.<ref>Kraemer, p. 158</ref>
The sun god was depicted in mosaics in three places of the Land of Israel; at the synagogues of Hammat Tiberias, Beth Alpha and Naaran. In the mosaic of the Hammat Tiberias, Helios is wrapped in a partially gilded tunic fastened with a fibula and sporting a seven-rayed halo<ref name=":steiny"/> with his right hand uplifted, while his left holds a globe and a whip; his chariot is drawn as a frontal box with two large wheels pulled by four horses.<ref name=":hak">Ḥaḵlîlî, pp 195-196</ref> At the Beth Alpha synagogue, Helios is at the centre of the circle of the zodiac mosaic, together with the Torah shrine between menorahs, other ritual objects, and a pair of lions, while the Seasons are in spandrels. The frontal head of Helios emerges from the chariot box, with two wheels in side view beneath, and the four heads of the horses, likewise frontal, surmounting an array of legs.<ref>Dunbabin, pp 191-192</ref><ref name=":steiny"/> In the synagogue of Naaran, the god is dressed in a white tunic embellished with gemstones on the upper body; over the tunic is a paludamentum pinned with a fibula or bulla and decorated with a star motif, as he holds in his hand a scarf, the distinctive symbol of a ruler from the fourth century onward, and much like all other mosaics he's seated in his four-horse chariot. Temporary writings record "the sun has three letters of [God's] name written at its heart and the angels lead it" and "[t]he sun is riding on a chariot and rises decorated like a bridegroom".<ref name=":steiny"/> Both at Naaran and Beth Alpha the image of the sun is presented in a bust in frontal position, and a crown with nimbus and rays on his head.<ref name=":hak"/> Helios at both Hammath Tiberias and Beth Alpha is depicted with seven rays emanating from his head, it has been argued that those two are significantly different; the Helios of Hammath Tiberias possesses all the attributes of Sol Invictus and thus the Roman emperors, those being the rayed crown, the raised right hand and the globe, all common Helios-Sol iconography of the late third and early fourth centuries AD.<ref name=":kraem"/>
Helios and Selene were also personified in the mosaic of the Monastery of Lady Mary at Beit She'an.<ref name=":hak"/> Here he is not shown as Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun, but rather as a celestial body, his red hair symbolizing the sun.<ref name=":steiny"/>
The poplar tree was considered sacred to Helios, due to the sun-like brilliance its shining leaves have.<ref>Decharme, pp 240–241</ref> A sacred poplar in an epigram written by Antipater of Thessalonica warns the reader not to harm her because Helios cares for her.Template:Sfn
Aelian wrote that the wolf is a beloved animal to Helios;<ref>Aelian, On Animals 10.26</ref> the wolf is also Apollo's sacred animal, and the god was often known as Apollo Lyceus, "wolf Apollo".<ref>Stoneman, p. 28</ref>
In post-classical artEdit
In paintingEdit
Helios/Sol had little independent identity and presence during the Renaissance, where the main solar gods were Apollo, Bacchus and Hercules.<ref name=":bull">Bull, p. 330</ref><ref>Bull, p. 352</ref> In post-antiquity art, Apollo assimilates features and attributes of both classical Apollo and Helios, so that Apollo, along with his own iconography, is many times depicted as driving the four-horse chariot, representing both of them.<ref name=":imp23">Impelluso, p. 23</ref> In medieval tradition, each of the four horses had its own distinctive colour; in the Renaissance, however, all four are shown as white.<ref name=":imp23"/><ref>Hall, p. 66</ref> In Versailles, a gilded statue depicts Apollo as the god of the sun, driving his quadriga as he sinks in the ocean;<ref>Cosgrove, p. 168</ref> Apollo in this regard represents the king of France, le roi-soleil, "the Sun King".<ref name=":hall">Hall, p. 27</ref>
Additionally to the chariot, Apollo is often drawn with a solar halo around his head and depicted in scenes of Helios' mythology.<ref>Impelluso, p. 24</ref><ref name=":hall"/> Accordingly, in depictions of Phaethon meeting his father and asking him the privilege of driving the sun chariot, artists gave to Phaethon's father the appearance and attributes of Apollo.<ref>Hall, p. 252</ref><ref>Seydle, p. 33</ref>
In literatureEdit
A love affair between the Sun god and the Nereid Amphitrite is introduced by French playwright Monléon's L'Amphytrite (1630); in the denouement, the Sun, scorned by the nymph, sets the land and sea ablaze, before the king of gods Jupiter intervenes and restores peace.<ref name=":powell"/>
In Jean-Gilbert Durval's Le Travaux d'Ulysse (1631), after his men dine on the sacred sheep, the Sun appears in 'a chariot of light', accompanied by Jupiter; like in the myth, Jupiter kills Odysseus' crewmen with his lightning bolts when they put to sea again.<ref name=":powell">Powell, pp 236–237</ref>
French composer Jean-Baptiste Lully wrote in 1683 a tragédie en musique inspired by Ovid's handling of the tale of Helios' son, Phaëton, in which Phaëton obtains from his father the sun chariot in order to prove his divine origins to his rival Epaphus, but loses control and is instead struck and killed by Jupiter.<ref>Jean-Baptiste Lully, Phaëton</ref> The luxury of the Sun and his palace was no doubt meant to connect to the Sun King, Louis XIV, who used the sun for his emblem.<ref>Miller and Newlands, p. 377</ref> This Apollo-Sun was frequently used to represent Louis XIV's reign, such as in Pierre Corneille's Andromède (1650).<ref>Powell, p. 266</ref>
Gerhart Hauptmann's Helios und Phaethon omits entirely the cosmic disaster Phaethon caused in order to focus on the relationship between the divine father and his mortal son, as Phaethon tries to convince his father he is well-suited for his five steeds, while Helios tries to dissuade his ambitious child, but eventually consents and gives him his reins and steeds to drive for a single day.<ref>Helios und Phaethon.</ref>
In James Joyce's book Ulysses, episode 14 is titled Oxen of the Sun, after the story of Odysseus' men and the cattle of Helios in book twelve of the Odyssey.<ref>Ulysses Guide: 14. Oxen of the Sun</ref>
In A True Story, the Sun is an inhabited place, ruled by a king named Phaethon, referencing Helios's mythological son.<ref>Lucian of Samosata, A True Story p. 23</ref> The inhabitants of the Sun are at war with those of the Moon, ruled by King Endymion (Selene's lover), over colonization of the Morning Star (Aphrodite's planet).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
NamesakesEdit
Helios is the Greek proper name for the Sun for both Ancient and Modern Greek,<ref>Template:Cite dictionary</ref> and additionally Helios, one of the craters of Hyperion, a moon of Saturn which bears Helios' father's name, is named after this Greek god. Several words relating to the Sun derive from "helios", including the rare adjective heliac (meaning "solar"),<ref>Template:OED</ref> heliosphere, perihelion and aphelion among others.
The chemical element Helium, a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas, first in the noble gas group in the periodic table, was named after Helios by Norman Lockyer and Edward Frankland, as it was first observed in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun.<ref>Template:OEtymD</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Helius is a genus of crane fly in the family Limoniidae that shares its name with the god.
A pair of probes that were launched into heliocentric orbit by NASA to study solar processes were called Helios A and Helios B.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}; {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive and NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive Note that there is no "Epoch end" date given, which is NASA's way of saying it is still in orbit.</ref>
Modern receptionEdit
Template:Main list Helios often appears in modern and popular culture due to his status as the god of the sun.
Helios has been portrayed in many modern works of literature such as in Gareth Hinds' 2010 version of The Odyssey<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and in 2018's The Burning Maze<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> in The Trials of Apollo series by Rick Riordan.
Helios has been portrayed in many video games, such as in Sony Computer Entertainment's God of War: Chains of Olympus, God of War II and God of War III where the character is a boss and plays an antagonist role against Kratos.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He also appears in the Wii game Metroid Prime 3: Corruption, where the second Seed guardian is named after Helios,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and as an AI in the Deus Ex series.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
GalleryEdit
- Helios in art
- Helios, Main figure (Johannes Benk) at the Naturhistorisches Museum, Wien-9958.jpg
Helios statue by Johannes Benk (1873) at the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.
- Statuette Helios Louvre Br344.jpg
Bronze statuette of Helios with a seven-pointed gloriole and breastplate.
- Antalya Museum - Helios.jpg
Helios statuette, Antalya Museum.
- Strasbourg-Koenigshoffen, Second-Century Mithraic Relief, Reconstruction ca. 140 CE–ca. 160 CE.jpg
Mithraic relief with original colors (reconstitution).
- ChristAsSol.jpg
Jesus Christ-Helios mosaic.
- AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg
Helios on a plate with Cybele.
- Rhodos - 88-43 BC - bronze coin - head of Helios - rose - München SMS.jpg
Helios on a Rhodian coin, München, Staatliche Münzsammlung.
- Helios with chlamys Louvre AO7530.jpg
Helios with a chlamys.
- Mosaïque Sens 1.jpg
Horses of the Sun, Musée de Sens.
- El Coloso De Rodas.jpg
The Colossus of Rhodes.
- Mithras tauroctony Louvre Ma3441b.jpg
Helios with Selene and Mithras.
- Le départ de Phaton (bgw17 1288).jpg
The Departure of Phaethon, Jean Jouvenet, oil on canvas, 1680s.
GenealogyEdit
Template:Chart top Template:Chart/start Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart Template:Chart/end Template:Chart bottom
See alsoEdit
- Ah! Sun-flower
- Amaterasu
- Amshuman
- Five Suns (mythology)
- Guaraci
- Heliopolis, particularly
- Korouhanba
- Piltzintecuhtli (mythology)
- List of solar deities
- Solar Myths
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
BibliographyEdit
Primary sourcesEdit
- Aelian, On Animals, Volume II: Books 6-11, translated by A. F. Scholfield, Loeb Classical Library No. 450, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. Online version at Harvard University Press.
- Aelian, On Animals, Volume III: Books 12-17, translated by A. F. Scholfield, Loeb Classical Library No. 449, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. Online version at Harvard University Press. Template:ISBN.
- Aeschylus, Fragments. Edited and translated by Alan H. Sommerstein. Loeb Classical Library 505. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. Template:ISBN.
- Aeschylus, Persians. Seven Against Thebes. Suppliants. Prometheus Bound. Edited and translated by Alan H. Sommerstein. Loeb Classical Library No. 145. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. Template:ISBN. Online version at Harvard University Press.
- Aesop, Aesop's Fables. A new translation by Laura Gibbs. Oxford University Press (World's Classics): Oxford, 2002. Full text and index available at mythfolklore.net.
- Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica; with an English translation by R. C. Seaton. William Heinemann, 1912.
- Apollonius Rhodius, The Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius: Book III, edited with introduction and commentary by Marshall M. Gillies, Cambridge University Press, 1928.
- Archilochus in Elegy and Iambus. with an English Translation by. J. M. Edmonds. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1931. 2. Online text available at Perseus Online Library.
- Aristophanes, Clouds. The Comedies of Aristophanes. William James Hickie. London. Bohn. 1853?.
- Athenaeus, The Learned Banqueters, Volume V: Books 10.420e-11. Edited and translated by S. Douglas Olson. Loeb Classical Library 274. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
- Callimachus. Hymns, translated by Alexander William Mair (1875–1928). London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1921. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
- Claudian, Rape of Persephone in Claudian: Volume II. Translated by Platnauer, Maurice. Loeb Classical Library Volume 136. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1922.
- Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Emperor Julian the Apostate, Against the Galileans: remains of the 3 books, excerpted from Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum, (1923) pp. 319–433, translated by Wilmer Cave Wright, Ph.D.
- Euripides, Fragments: Oedipus-Chrysippus. Other Fragments. Edited and translated by Christopher Collard, Martin Cropp. Loeb Classical Library 506. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
- Euripides, Medea translated by Michael Collier and Georgia Machemer, Oxford University Press, 2006, Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Euripides, The Complete Greek Drama', edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. .1. Iphigenia in Tauris, translated by Robert Potter. New York. Random House. 1938.
- Euripides, The Complete Greek Drama', edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 2. The Phoenissae, translated by E. P. Coleridge. New York. Random House. 1938.
- Herodotus, Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Online version available at The Perseus Digital Library.
- Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Hesychius of Alexandria, Alphabetical Collection of All Words: Vol. III (pi through sigma), Vol. IV (tau through omega)
- Homeric Hymn 2 to Demeter in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Homeric Hymn 28 to Athena in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Homeric Hymn 31 to Helios in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
- Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960.
- Greek Anthology, with an English Translation by. W. R. Paton. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1916. 1. Full text available at topostext.org.
- Isthmian odes of Pindar, edited with introduction and commentary by J. B. Bury, M.A., London, Macmillan and Co., 1892.
- Lactantius Placidus, Argumenta in Lateinische Mythographen: Lactantius Placidus, Argumente der Metamorphosen Ovids, erstes heft, Dr. B. Bunte, Bremen, 1852, J. Kühtmann & Comp.
- Libanius, Libanius's Progymnasmata: Model Exercises in Greek Prose Composition and Rhetoric. With a translation and notes by Craig A. Gibson. Society of Biblical Literature, Atalanta. 2008. Template:ISBN
- Longinus, On the Sublime, translated into English by H. L. Havell, with an introduction by Andrew Lang, Macmillan Publishers, London, 1890. Online text available here.
- Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods; translated by Fowler, H W and F G. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1905.
- Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead. Dialogues of the Sea-Gods. Dialogues of the Gods. Dialogues of the Courtesans, translated by M. D. MacLeod, Loeb Classical Library No. 431, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1961. Template:ISBN. Online version at Harvard University Press. Internet Archive.
- Lucian, Icaromenippus in The Downward Journey or The Tyrant. Zeus Catechized. Zeus Rants. The Dream or The Cock. Prometheus. Icaromenippus or The Sky-man. Timon or The Misanthrope. Charon or The Inspectors. Philosophies for Sale. Translated by A. M. Harmon. Loeb Classical Library 54. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1915.
- Lucian, Lucian's A True Story: an Intermediate Greek reader, Greek text with running vocabulary and commentary, Evan Hayes, Stephen A. Nimis, 2011. Template:ISBN
- Lucian, The Dream or the Cock in The Downward Journey or The Tyrant. Zeus Catechized. Zeus Rants. The Dream or The Cock. Prometheus. Icaromenippus or The Sky-man. Timon or The Misanthrope. Charon or The Inspectors. Philosophies for Sale. Translated by A. M. Harmon. Loeb Classical Library 54. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1915.
- Lycophron, Alexandra (or Cassandra) in Callimachus and Lycophron with an English translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921 . Internet Archive
- Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii carmina comentarii. Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen. Georgius Thilo. Leipzig. B. G. Teubner. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Mesomedes in Lyra Græca: Specimens of the Greek Lyric Poets, from Callinus to Soutsos. Edited, with critical Notes, and a biographical Introduction, by James Donaldson (Edinburgh & London, 1854) p. 96f.
- Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, I Books I-XV. Loeb Classical Library No. 344, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. Internet Archive
- Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, II Books XVI-XXXV. Loeb Classical Library No. 345, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. Internet Archive
- Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, III Books XXXVI–XLVIII. Loeb Classical Library No. 346, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. Internet Archive.
- Orphic Argonautica with a translation by Jason Calavito. Published by Jason Calavito, Albany, New York, 2011. Full text available online at argonauts-book.com.
- Ovid, Fasti: With an English translation by Sir James George Frazer, London: W. Heinemann LTD; Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. Internet Archive.
- Ovid. Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1-8. Translated by Frank Justus Miller. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library No. 42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916. Template:ISBN. Online version at Harvard University Press.
- Palaephatus in Early Greek Philosophy, Volume I: Introductory and Reference Materials. Edited and translated by André Laks, Glenn W. Most. Loeb Classical Library 524. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016.
- Palladas, in The Greek Anthology, Volume IV: Book 10: The Hortatory and Admonitory Epigrams. Book 11: The Convivial and Satirical Epigrams. Book 12: Strato's Musa Puerilis. Translated by W. R. Paton. Loeb Classical Library 85. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1918.
- Paradoxographoe, by Anton Westermann, Harvard College Library, 1839, London.
- Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Philostratus, Imagines, translated by A. Fairbanks, Loeb Classical Library No, 256. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1931. Template:ISBN. Internet Archive
- Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Plato, Laws in Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vols. 10 & 11 translated by R.G. Bury. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1967 & 1968. Online text available at Perseus Digital Library.
- Plato, Plato's statesman: A translation of The Politicus of Plato, with introductory essays and footnotes., & Skemp, J. B. (1952) New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Pliny the Elder, Pliny – Natural History, 10 volumes. Translated by Rackham, H.; Jones, W. H. S.; Eichholz, D. E. Loeb Classical Library. 1938–1962.
- Plutarch, Moralia. 16 vols. (vol. 13: 13.1 & 13.2, vol. 16: index), transl. by Frank Cole Babbitt (vol. 1–5) et al., series: "Loeb Classical Library" (LCL, vols. 197–499). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press et al., 1927–2004.
- Porphyry, On Abstinence From Animal Food in Select works of Porphyry: Containing his four books On abstinence from animal food; his treatise On the Homeric cave of the nymphs; and his Auxiliaries to the perception of intelligible natures. Translated by Thomas Taylor (1823). Several reprints; Prometheus Trust (1994).
- Quintus Smyrnaeus, Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy, translated by A.S. Way, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1913. Internet Archive.
- Scholia Aristophanica; being such comments adscript to the text of Aristophanes as have been preserved in the Codex Ravennas, arr., emended, and translated by Rutherford, William Gunion, 1853–1907, ed. and tr; Biblioteca comunale classense (Ravenna, Italy).
- Seneca, Tragedies, translated by Miller, Frank Justus. Loeb Classical Library Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1917.
- Sophocles. Fragments. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones. Loeb Classical Library 483. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
- Sophocles, The Ajax of Sophocles. Edited with introduction and notes by Sir Richard Jebb. Sir Richard Jebb. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 1893.
- Sophocles, The Oedipus Plays of Sophocles: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonos, Antigone, with a translation by Paul Roche. New York: Plume, 2004.
- Statius, Thebaid. Translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928.
- Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Theocritus in Greek Bucolic Poets. Edited and translated by Neil Hopkinson. Loeb Classical Library 28. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1912. Online text available at theoi.com.
- Tzetzes, John, Book of Histories, Book II-IV translated by Gary Berkowitz from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826. Online version available at Theoi.com.
- Tzetzes, John, Chiliades, editor Gottlieb Kiessling, F.C.G. Vogel, 1826. Google Books. (English translation: Book I by Ana Untila; Books II–IV, by Gary Berkowitz; Books V–VI by Konstantino Ramiotis; Books VII–VIII by Vasiliki Dogani; Books IX–X by Jonathan Alexander; Books XII–XIII by Nikolaos Giallousis. Internet Archive).
- Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volume 286. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. Online version at Theoi.com.
- Vergil, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
- Xenophon's Ephesian History: or the Love-Adventures of Abrocomas and Anthia, in Five Books''. Translated from the Greek by Mr. Rooke [the Second Edition], London: Printed for J. Millan at Locke's Head in Shug-Lane; 1727, pp. 87–112.
Secondary sourcesEdit
- 1742 libretto: Phaeton, Tragedie représentée pour la première fois à Versailles devant le Roi, le mercredi 6 janvier 1683 et à Paris (...) Remise au théâtre le mardi 13 novembre 1742. Paris: Ballard.
- Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, The Orphic Hymns, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013) Template:ISBN. Google Books.
- Barnhart, Robert K., The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology, 1995, HarperCollins, Template:ISBN.
- Beaulieu, Marie-Claire, The Sea in the Greek Imagination, University of California Press, 2016, Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Beck, Hans, Localism and the Ancient Greek City-State, University of Chicago Press, 2020, Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Template:Cite book
- Bell, Robert E., Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary, ABC-CLIO 1991, Template:ISBN. Internet Archive.
- Berens, E. M., The Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome, Blackie & Son, Old Bailey, E.C., Glasgow, Endinburgh and Dublin. 1880.
- Bonfant, Larissa, Swaddling, Judith, Etruscan myths. The legendary past. London and Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2006. 80 pages : illustrations, map; 25 cm. Template:ISBN
- Bortolani, Ljuba Merlina, Magical Hymns from Roman Egypt: A Study of Greek and Egyptian Traditions of Divinity, Cambridge University Press, 2016, Template:ISBN.
- Boyle, A. J., Seneca: Medea: Edited with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014, Template:ISBN
- Bull, Malcolm, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, Oxford University Press, 2005, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite book
- Caldwell, Richard, Hesiod's Theogony, Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company (June 1, 1987). Template:ISBN.
- Template:Citation
- Chrystal, Paul, War in Greek Mythology, 2020, Pen & Sword Military, Template:ISBN.
- Classical Manual: Or a Mythological, Historical and Geographical Commentary on Pope's Homer and Dryden's Aeneid of Virgil, with a Copious Index, London, printed by A. J. Valpy, M. A. For Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. 1827.
- Cohen, Beth, White Ground, in The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases, Getty Publications, 2006, Template:ISBN.
- Collard Christopher, Cropp Martin, Lee Kevin H.; Euripides: Selected Fragmentary Plays: Volume I, Oxbow Books, United Kingdom, 1995, Template:ISBN.
- Collignon, Maxime, Manual of Mythology, in Relation to Greek Art, University of Michigan, 1890.
- Collins, Derek, Magic in the Ancient Greek World, Blackwell Publishing, 2008, Template:ISBN.
- Cook, Arthur Bernard, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Volume I: Zeus God of the Bright Sky, Cambridge University Press 1914. Internet Archive.
- Cosgrove, Denis E. and Cosgrove, Carmen P., Apollo's Eye: A Cartographic Genealogy of the Earth in the Western Imagination, the Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, Template:ISBN.
- Davidson, James, "Time and Greek Religion", in A Companion to Greek Religion, edited by Daniel Ogden, John Wiley & Sons, 2010, Template:ISBN.
- Decharme, Paul, Mythologie de la Grèce antique, Garnier Frères, 1884. Google books (in French).
- Template:Cite book
- Diggle, James, Euripides: Phaethon, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries, Series Number 12, 1970, Template:ISBN.
- Dillon, Matthew, Girls and Women in Classical Greek Religion, Routledge, 2002, Template:ISBN.
- Dillon, Matthew, Omens and Oracles: Divination in Ancient Greece, Routledge, 2017, Template:ISBN.
- Dunbabin, Katherine M. D., Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World, Cambridge University Press, Edinburgh, 1999, Template:ISBN.
- Ekroth, Gunnel, The Sacrificial Rituals of Greek Hero-Cults in the Archaic to the Early Hellenistic Period, Presses universitaires de Liège, 2013, Template:ISBN.
- Fairbanks, Arthur, The Mythology of Greece and Rome. D. Appleton–Century Company, New York, 1907.
- Faita, Antonia-Stella, The Great Altar of Pergamon: The Monument in its Historical and Cultural Context, 2000, University of Bristol. Internet Archive.
- Faraone, Christopher A., Ancient Greek Love Magic, Harvard University Press, 1999, Template:ISBN.
- Faraone, Christopher A. and Obbink, Dirk, Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, Oxford University Press, 1991, Template:ISBN.
- Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States vol. ΙV, Cambridge University Press, 2010, Template:ISBN.
- Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States: Volume 5, January 1977, ThriftBooks-Baltimore, Template:ISBN
- Template:Cite book
- Fletcher, Judith, Performing Oaths in Classical Greek Drama, Cambridge University Press 2012, New York, Template:ISBN.
- Foley, Helene, The Homeric Hymn to Demeter: Translation, Commentary, and Interpretive Essays, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1993, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite book
- Fowler, R. L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000. Template:ISBN.
- Fowler, R. L. (2013), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2013. Template:ISBN.
- Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, 1993, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Template:ISBN.
- Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: Template:ISBN (Vol. 1), Template:ISBN (Vol. 2).
- Gardner, Percy; Jevons, Frank Byron, A Manual of Greek Antiquities, University of Wisconsin, 1895, Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Gelling, Peter; Davidson Hilda Ellis, Chariot of the Sun and Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronze Age, Aldine Paperbacks, 1972, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Citation
- Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. Template:ISBN.
- de Grummond, Nancy T., From Pergamon to Sperlonga: Sculpture and Context. University of California Press, Los Angeles, United States, 2000. Template:ISBN
- Guillermier Pierre; Koutchmy Serge, Total Eclipses: Science, Observations, Myths and Legends, Praxis Publishing, 1999, Template:ISBN.
- Guthrie, W. K. C., Orpheus and Greek Religion: A Study of the Orphic Movement, Princeton University Press, 1935. Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Hamilton, Edith, Mythology. Grand Central Publishing. Chicago. Hamilton, Edith. 2011. Mythology. London, England: Grand Central Publishing.
- Hansen, William F., Handbook of Classical Mythology, ABC-CLIO, Inc. 2004. Template:ISBN.
- Ḥaḵlîlî, Rāḥēl, Ancient Mosaic Pavements: Themes, Issues, and Trends: Selected Studies, Brill Publications, 2009, Boston, Template:ISBN.
- Hall, James, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, second edition, 2018, Routledge publications, Template:ISBN.
- Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, Template:ISBN. Google Books.
- Template:Cite book
- Harrison, Juliette, Dreams and Dreaming in the Roman Empire: Cultural Memory and Imagination, 2013, Bloomsbury, Template:ISBN.
- Harris-Warrick Rebecca, Dance and Drama in French Baroque Opera, Cambridge University Press, 2016, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite book
- Hauptmann, Gerhart, Ährenlese, SAGA Egmont, 1939, Template:ISBN.
- Hemingway, Seán, How to Read Greek Sculpture, published by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, 2021, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite thesis
- Template:Cite book
- Impelluso, Lucia, Gods and Heroes in Art, translated by Thomas Michael Hartmann, 2002 (English translation), Getty Publications for the United States.
- Inman, Thomas, Ancient faiths embodied in ancient names: or, An attempt to trace the religious belief, sacred rites, and holy emblems of certain nations, volume 1, second edition, 1872, Trübner and Co.
- Template:Cite book
- Keightley, Thomas, The Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy, second edition considerably enlarged and improved, London, Whittaker and Co., 1838.
- Template:Cite news
- Template:Cite news et passim.
- Kilinski, Karl, Greek Myth and Western Art: The Presence of the Past, Cambridge University Press, New York City, 2013, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite book
- Knight, Virginia, The Renewal of Epic: Responses to Homer in the Argonautica of Apollonius, Brill Publishers, 1995, Template:ISBN.
- Kraemer, Ross Shepard, When Aseneth Met Joseph: A Late Antique Tale of the Biblical Patriarch and His Egyptian Wife, Reconsidered, Oxford University Press, New York City, 1998, Template:ISBN.
- Kristiansen, Kristian; Larsson, Thomas B. (2005). The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations. Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN
- Lalonde, Gerald V., Horos Dios: An Athenian Shrine and Cult of Zeus, Brill Publishers, Boston, 2006, Template:ISBN.
- Larson, Jennifer, A Land Full of Gods: Nature Deities in Greek Religion, In A Companion to Greek Religion, D. Ogden (Ed.), 2007.
- Larson, Jennifer, Ancient Greek Cults: A Guide, Routledge, 2007, Template:ISBN.
- Larson, Jennifer Lynn, Greek Heroine Cults, the University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, Template:ISBN.
- Larson, Jennifer, Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore, Oxford University Press, 2001, Template:ISBN.
- Lecerf, Adrien, Iamblichus and Julian's "Third Demiurge": A Proposition in Afonasin, Eugene; Dillon, John M. Dillon; Finamore, John, Iamblichus and the Foundations of Late Platonism, Brill Publications, 2012, Template:ISBN.
- Le Comte, Edward, Poets' Riddles: Essays in Seventeenth-century Explication, Port Washington, N.Y. : Kennikat Press, 1975.
- Loney, Alexander C., The Ethics of Revenge and the Meanings of the Odyssey, Oxford University Press, 2018, Template:ISBN.
- Long, Charlotte R., The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome with a frontispiece, 101 plates and two maps, Brill Publishers, 1987, Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Lupu, Eran, Greek Sacred Law: A Collection of New Documents (NGSL), Leiden, Brill Publications, Netherlands, 2005, Template:ISBN.
- MacDonald Kirkwood, Gordon, A Short Guide to Classical Mythology. Cornell University. 2000. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc.
- Madigan, Brian Christopher, Monumenta Graeca et Romana: Corinthian and Attic vases in the Detroit Institute of Arts, Boston, Brill Publications, 2008. Template:ISBN.
- Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q., Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997, Template:ISBN.
- Malkin, Irad, Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece, 1987, Template:ISBN.
- March, Jennifer R., Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Illustrations by Neil Barrett, Cassel & Co., 1998. Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite book
- Matthews, Victor J., Panyassis of Halikarnassos: Text and Commentary, Brill Publications, Leiden, 1974, Template:ISBN.
- Mayerson, Philip, Classical Mythology in Literature, Art, and Music, Focus publishing, R. Pullins Company, 2001. Template:ISBN.
- Meagher, Robert E., The Meaning of Helen: In Search of an Ancient Icon, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2002. Template:ISBN.
- Meisner, Dwayne A., Orphic Tradition and the Birth of the Gods, Oxford University Press, 2018, Template:ISBN.
- Mikalson, Jon D., Honor Thy Gods: Popular Religion in Greek Tragedy, The University of North Carolina Press, 1991, Template:ISBN.
- Miles, Margaret L., Autopsy in Athens: Recent Archaeological Research on Athens and Attica, Oxbow Books, London, 2015, Template:ISBN.
- Miller, John F. and Newlands, Carole E., A Handbook to the Reception of Ovid, Wiley Blackwell, 2014, Template:ISBN.
- Miller, Stella G., Two Groups of Thessalian Gold, Volume 18, University of California Press, 1979, Template:ISBN.
- Mitchell, Lucy M., "Sculptures of the Great Pergamon Altar" in The Century Magazine, 1883.
- Morris, Ian, Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and Modern Archaeologies, Cambridge University Press, 1994. Template:ISBN.
- Müller, Karl Wilhelm Ludwig, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, Volume I, 1841. Internet Archive.* Müller, Karl Wilhelm Ludwig, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, Volume I, 1841. Internet Archive.
- Murray, Alexander Stuart; Klapp William H., Handbook of World Mythology, Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola, New York. 2005. Template:ISBN
- Nagy, Gregory, Greek Mythology and Poetics, Cornell University Press, 1990, Template:ISBN.
- Nawotka, Krzysztof, The Alexander Romance by Ps.-Callisthenes: A Historical Commentary, Brill Publishers, 2017, Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Neils, The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present, Cambridge University Press, 2005. Template:ISBN.
- Nilsson, Martin, Griechische Feste von religiöser Bedeutung, mit Ausschluss der attischen, 1906. Internet Archive.
- Template:Citation
- Notopoulos, James A., Socrates and the Sun, The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc., 1942.
- Numen: International Review for the History of Religions, vol. 51, no. 4, Brill, 2004, E. Thomassen, M. Despland and G. Benavides. Boston.
- Ogden, Daniel, Greek and Roman Necromancy, 2001, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN.
- Olderr, Steven, Symbolism: A Comprehensive Dictionary, second edition, McFarland & Company, Inc 2012; United States Template:ISBN.
- Oxford Classical Dictionary, fourth edition, Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth (editors), Oxford University Press, 2012. Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Paipetis S. A., Science and Technology in Homeric Epics, University of Patras, 2008, Patras, Greece. Template:ISBN.
- Palagia, Olga, The Pediments of the Parthenon, BRILL, 1998. Template:ISBN.
- Parker, Robert, Polytheism and Society at Athens, Oxford University Press, 2005. Template:ISBN.
- Parvopassu, Clelia, Phaéton, in Gelli, Piero & Poletti, Filippo (ed), Dizionario dell'opera 2008, Milan, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007, Template:ISBN.
- Patton, Kimberley Christine, Religion of the Gods: Ritual, Paradox, and Reflexivity, Oxford University Press, USA, 2009.
- Template:Cite book
- Picón, Carlos A.; Hemingway, Seán, Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World, Yale University Press, 2016, Template:ISBN.
- Platt, Verity; Squire, Michael, The Frame in Classical Art: A Cultural History, Cambridge University Press, 2017, Template:ISBN.
- Powell, Barry B., Greek Poems to the Gods: Hymns from Homer to Proclus, University of California Press, 2021, Template:ISBN.
- Powell, John Scott, Music and Theatre in France, 1600-1680, Oxford University Press, 2000.
- Rahner, Hugo, Greek Myths and Christian Mystery, Biblo-Moser, June 1, 1963, Template:ISBN.
- Ridgeway, Brunilde Sismondo, Hellenistic Sculpture II: The Styles of ca. 200–100 B.C., The University of Wisconsin Press, 2000.
- Riggs, Christina, The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2012, Template:ISBN.
- Roberts, Helene E., Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in Works of Art. Volume I and II, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, London, Chicago, 1998. Template:ISBN.
- Robertson, Martin (1981), A Shorter History of Greek Art, Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN.
- Robertson, Martin (1992), The Art of Vase-Painting in Classical Athens, Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN.
- Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian, A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Rose, H. J., A Handbook of Greek Mythology, Methuen and Co. Ltd. London and New York, 1928. Template:ISBN
- Roscher, Wilhelm Heinrich, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), Volume II, part 1.
- Rutherford, Ian, Pindar's Paeans: A Reading of the Fragments with a Survey of the Genre, Oxford University Press, New York, 2001. Template:ISBN.
- Salatino, Kevin; Folds, Suzanne, Gray Collection: Pure Drawing, 2020, the Art Institute of Chicago, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite book
- Savignoni, L. 1899. "On Representations of Helios and of Selene." The Journal of Hellenic Studies 19: pp. 265–272
- Template:Cite book
- Seaton, Beverly, The Language of Flowers: A History, University Press of Virginia, 1995, Template:ISBN.Google books.
- Seydle, Jon L., Giambattista Tiepolo: Fifteen Oil Sketches, 2005, Getty Publications, Template:ISBN.
- Seyffert, Oskar, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art, from the German of Dr. Oskar Seyffert, S. Sonnenschein, 1901. Internet Archive.
- Smith, Helaine L., Masterpieces of Classic Greek Drama, Greenwood Press, 2006, Template:ISBN.
- Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873)."Helios".
- Sommerstein, Alan H.; Bayliss, Andrew James, Oath and State in Ancient Greece, Walter de Gruyter publications, Berlin, 2013, Template:ISBN.
- Steinberg, Aliza, Weaving in Stones: Garments and Their Accessories in the Mosaic Art of Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity, Archaeopress Publishing, 2020, Template:ISBN.
- Stoneman, Richard; Erickson, Kyle; Netton, Ian Richard, The Alexander Romance in Persia and the East, 2012, Template:ISBN.
- Stoneman, Richard, Greek Mythology: An Encyclopedia of Myth and Legend, Diamond Books, 1995.
- Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm, Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks, With a Short Account of The Religious System of the Romans, tr. by R.B. Paul, and ed. by T.K. Arnold, London, Francis & John Rivington, 1852.
- Template:Cite book
- The Classical Review, volume VII, University of Illinois Library, 1893.
- The Nineteenth Century, Volume 17, edited by James Knowles, January–June 1885, London, Harvard College Library.
- Thonemann, Peter, An Ancient Dream Manual: Artemidorus' The Interpretation of Dreams, Oxford University Press, 2020, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Citation.
- Torr, Cecil, Rhodes in Ancient Times, Cambridge University Press, 1885.
- Tsagalis, Christos, Early Greek Epic Fragments I: Antiquarian and Genealogical Epic De Gruyter, 2017, Template:ISBN.
- Usener, Herman, Göttliche Synonyme in Kleine Schriften, Cambridge University Press, 2010, Template:ISBN. Google books.
- Template:Cite book
- van den Berg, Robbert Maarten, Proclus' Hymns: Essays, Translations, Commentary, 2001, Template:ISBN.
- Vergados, Athanassios, The "Homeric Hymn to Hermes": Introduction, Text and Commentary, Walter de Gruyter, 2012. Template:ISBN.
- Vermaseren, M. J, Graecia atque Insulae, Brill Publications, Leiden, 1982, Template:ISBN.
- Versnel, H.S., Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual: Volume 1: Ter Unus. Isis, Dionysos, Hermes. Three Studies in Henotheism, Brill Publications, 2015, Template:ISBN.
- Walters, Henry Beauchamp, History of ancient pottery, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman volume II, based on the work of Samuel Birch, 1905, London, J. Murray, New York.
- Walton, Alice, The Cult of Asclepius, Ginn and Company, 1894.
- Warrior, Valerie M., Greek Religion: A Sourcebook, 2009, Template:ISBN.
- Waterfield, Robin, The Greek Myths: Stories of the Greek Gods and Heroes Vividly Retold, 2011, Quercus, Template:ISBN. Online text available at Internet Archive.
- West, M. L., Indo-European Poetry and Myth, Oxford University Press, 2007. Template:ISBN. Google Books.
- Xenis, Georgios A., Scholia vetera in Sophoclis "Oedipum Coloneum", De Gruyter, 2018. Template:ISBN.
- Zucker, Arnaud; Le Feuvre, Claire, Ancient and Medieval Greek Etymology: Theory and Practice I, De Gruyter, Template:ISBN.
- Template:Cite book
Further readingEdit
- Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 59, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Template:ISBN; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries.
- The translation and reconstruction of Euripides' "Phaethon" made by Vlanes is now available as ebook on Amazon.
External linksEdit
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project
- HELIOS on The Theoi Project
- HELIOS on Greek Mythology Link
- HELIOS in greekmythology.com
- HELIOS from Mythopedia
- TITAN from The Theoi Project
Template:Greek religion Template:Greek mythology (deities) Template:Characters in the Odyssey