Syriac alphabet
Template:Short description Template:Infobox Writing system Template:Special characters
The Syriac alphabet ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:TransliterationTemplate:Efn) is a writing system primarily used to write the Syriac language since the 1st century.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> It is one of the Semitic abjads descending from the Aramaic alphabet through the Palmyrene alphabet,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and shares similarities with the Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic and Sogdian, the precursor and a direct ancestor of the traditional Mongolian scripts.
Syriac is written from right to left in horizontal lines. It is a cursive script where most—but not all—letters connect within a word. There is no letter case distinction between upper and lower case letters, though some letters change their form depending on their position within a word. Spaces separate individual words.
All 22 letters are consonants (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration). There are optional diacritic marks (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration) to indicate the vowel (Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration) and other features. In addition to the sounds of the language, the letters of the Syriac alphabet can be used to represent numbers in a system similar to Hebrew and Greek numerals.
Apart from Classical Syriac Aramaic, the alphabet has been used to write other dialects and languages. Several Christian Neo-Aramaic languages, from Turoyo to the Northeastern Neo-Aramaic language of Suret, once vernaculars, primarily began to be written in the 19th century. The Template:Transliteration variant has explicitly been adapted to write Western Neo-Aramaic, previously written in the square Maalouli script, developed by George Rizkalla (Rezkallah), based on the Hebrew alphabet.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Besides Aramaic, when Arabic began to be the dominant spoken language in the Fertile Crescent after the Islamic conquest, texts were often written in Arabic using the Syriac script as knowledge of the Arabic alphabet was not yet widespread; such writings are usually called Karshuni or Garshuni (Template:Script). In addition to Semitic languages, Sogdian was also written with Syriac script, as well as Malayalam, which form was called Suriyani Malayalam.
Alphabet formsEdit
There are three major variants of the Syriac alphabet: Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration.
Template:Anchor Classical Template:TransliterationEdit
The oldest and classical form of the alphabet is Template:TransliterationTemplate:Efn ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). The name of the script is thought to derive from the Greek adjective strongýlē ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'rounded'),<ref>Hatch, William (1946). An Album of Dated Syriac Manuscripts. Boston: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, reprinted in 2002 by Gorgias Press. p. 24. Template:ISBN.</ref> though it has also been suggested to derive from Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'gospel character').<ref>Nestle, Eberhard (1888). Syrische Grammatik mit Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar. Berlin: H. Reuther's Verlagsbuchhandlung. [translated to English as Syriac grammar with bibliography, chrestomathy and glossary, by R. S. Kennedy. London: Williams & Norgate 1889. p. 5].</ref> Although ʾEsṭrangēlā is no longer used as the main script for writing Syriac, it has received some revival since the 10th century. It is often used in scholarly publications (such as the Leiden University version of the Peshitta), in titles, and in inscriptions. In some older manuscripts and inscriptions, it is possible for any letter to join to the left, and older Aramaic letter forms (especially of [[Heth|Template:Transliteration]] and the lunate [[Mem|Template:Transliteration]]) are found. Vowel marks are usually not used with Template:Transliteration, being the oldest form of the script and arising before the development of specialized diacritics.
Template:Anchor East Syriac Template:TransliterationEdit
The East Syriac dialect is usually written in the Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Mdnh, 'Eastern') form of the alphabet. Other names for the script include Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Mdnh, 'conversational' or 'vernacular', often translated as 'contemporary', reflecting its use in writing modern Neo-Aramaic), Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Mdnh, 'Assyrian', not to be confused with the traditional name for the Hebrew alphabet), Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Mdnh, 'Chaldean'), and, inaccurately, "Nestorian" (a term that was originally used to refer to the Church of the East in the Sasanian Empire). The Eastern script resembles ʾEsṭrangēlā somewhat more closely than the Western script.
VowelsEdit
The Eastern script uses a system of dots above and/or below letters, based on an older system, to indicate vowel sounds not found in the script:
- (File:East Syriac vowel a Ftoho alone.svg) A dot above and a dot below a letter represent {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as a or ă (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration),
- (File:East Syriac vowel o Zqofo alone.svg) Two diagonally-placed dots above a letter represent {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ā or â or å (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration),
- (File:East Syriac vowel e Rboso alone.svg) Two horizontally-placed dots below a letter represent {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as e or ĕ (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration or Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration; often pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and transliterated as i in the East Syriac dialect),
- (File:Syriac dotted Zlama angular (Madnhaya form).svg) Two diagonally-placed dots below a letter represent {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ē (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration or Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration),
- (Template:Script/Mdnh) The letter waw with a dot below it represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ū or u (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration or Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration),
- (Template:Script/Mdnh) The letter Template:Transliteration with a dot above it represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ō or o (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration or Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration),
- (Template:Script/Mdnh) The letter yōḏ with a dot beneath it represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ī or i (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration),
- (File:East Syriac vowel i Hboso.svg) A combination of Template:Transliteration (usually) followed by a letter yōḏ represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (possibly *{{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Proto-Syriac), transliterated as ē or ê (called Template:Script/Mdnh, Template:Transliteration).
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It is thought that the Eastern method for representing vowels influenced the development of the niqqud markings used for writing Hebrew.
In addition to the above vowel marks, transliteration of Syriac sometimes includes ə, e̊ or superscript e (or often nothing at all) to represent an original Aramaic schwa that became lost later on at some point in the development of Syriac. Some transliteration schemes find its inclusion necessary for showing spirantization or for historical reasons. Whether because its distribution is mostly predictable (usually inside a syllable-initial two-consonant cluster) or because its pronunciation was lost, both the East and the West variants of the alphabet traditionally have no sign to represent the schwa.
Template:Anchor West Syriac Template:TransliterationEdit
The West Syriac dialect is usually written in the Template:Transliteration or Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Serto, 'line') form of the alphabet, also known as the Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Serto, 'simple'), 'Maronite' or the 'Jacobite' script (although the term Jacobite is considered derogatory). Most of the letters are clearly derived from ʾEsṭrangēlā, but are simplified, flowing lines. A cursive chancery hand is evidenced in the earliest Syriac manuscripts, but important works were written in ʾEsṭrangēlā. From the 8th century, the simpler Serṭā style came into fashion, perhaps because of its more economical use of parchment.
VowelsEdit
The Western script is usually vowel-pointed, with miniature Greek vowel letters above or below the letter which they follow:
- (File:Syriac Pthaha below (Serto form).svg) Capital alpha ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as a or ă (Template:Script/Serto, Template:Transliteration),
- (File:Syriac Zqapha above (Serto form).svg) Lowercase alpha ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ā or â or å (Template:Script/Serto, Template:Transliteration; pronounced as {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and transliterated as o in the West Syriac dialect),
- (File:Syriac Rbasa above (Serto form).svg) Lowercase epsilon ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) represents both {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as e or ĕ, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ē (Template:Script/Serto, Template:Transliteration),
- (File:Syriac Serto vowel i Hboso alone.svg) Capital eta ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ī (Template:Script/Serto, Template:Transliteration),
- (File:Syriac Serto vowel u Csoso.svg) A combined symbol of capital upsilon ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and lowercase omicron ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) represents {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, transliterated as ū or u (Template:Script/Serto, Template:Transliteration),
- Lowercase omega ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), used only in the vocative interjection Template:Transliteration (Template:Script/Serto, 'O!').
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Summary tableEdit
Template:Alphabet The Syriac alphabet consists of the following letters, shown in their isolated (non-connected) forms. When isolated, the letters Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, and Template:Transliteration are usually shown with their initial form connected to their final form (see below). The letters Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration (and, in early ʾEsṭrangēlā manuscripts, the letter Template:Transliteration<ref>Coakley, J. F. (2002). Robinson's Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 141. Template:ISBN.</ref>) do not connect to a following letter within a word; these are marked with an asterisk (*).
Contextual forms of lettersEdit
LigaturesEdit
| Letter
name |
Template:Transliteration (classical) | Template:Transliteration (eastern) | Unicode character(s) |
Description | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unconnected
final |
Connected
final |
Initial or
unconnected medial |
Unconnected
final |
Connected
final |
Initial or
unconnected medial | |||
| Template:Transliteration | File:Aramaic lamadh alap.png | File:Lamadh-alaph.svg | ܠܐ | Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration combined at the end of a word | ||||
| Template:Transliteration | File:Aramaic taw alap.png | File:SyriacTawAlaph2.png / File:SyriacTawAlaph3.png | File:SyriacTawAlaph.png | File:SyriacAlaph.png File:SyriacTaw.png | ܬܐ | Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration combined at the end of a word | ||
| Template:Transliteration | File:SyriacHeYodh.png | ܗܝ | Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration combined at the end of a word | |||||
| Template:Transliteration | File:Tawyodh.svg | ܬܝ | Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration combined at the end of a word | |||||
Letter alterationsEdit
Matres lectionisEdit
Three letters act as matres lectionis: rather than being a consonant, they indicate a vowel. [[Aleph (letter)|Template:Transliteration]] ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), the first letter, represents a glottal stop, but it can also indicate a vowel, especially at the beginning or the end of a word. The letter waw ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is the consonant w, but can also represent the vowels o and u. Likewise, the letter Template:Nowrap represents the consonant y, but it also stands for the vowels i and e.
Template:TransliterationEdit
In modern usage, some alterations can be made to represent phonemes not represented in classical phonology. A mark similar in appearance to a tilde (~), called majlīyānā (Template:Script/Mdnh), is placed above or below a letter in the Maḏnḥāyā variant of the alphabet to change its phonetic value (see also: Geresh):
- Added below Template:Transliteration: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (voiced palato-alveolar affricate)
- Added below Template:Transliteration: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (voiceless palato-alveolar affricate)
- Added above or below Template:Transliteration: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (voiced palato-alveolar sibilant)
- Added above Template:Transliteration: {{#invoke:IPA|main}} to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}
Template:Transliteration and Template:TransliterationEdit
In addition to foreign sounds, a marking system is used to distinguish Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'hard' letters) from Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'soft' letters). The letters Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, and Template:Transliteration, all stop consonants ('hard') are able to be 'spirantized' (lenited) into fricative consonants ('soft'). The system involves placing a single dot underneath the letter to give its 'soft' variant and a dot above the letter to give its 'hard' variant (though, in modern usage, no mark at all is usually used to indicate the 'hard' value):
| Name | Stop | Translit. | IPA | Name | Fricative | Translit. | IPA | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bēṯ (qšīṯā) | Template:Script/Hebrew | b | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Bēṯ rakkīḵtā | Template:Script/Hebrew | ḇ | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | main}} has become {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in most modern dialects. |
| Gāmal (qšīṯā) | Template:Script/Hebrew | g | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Gāmal rakkīḵtā | Template:Script/Hebrew | ḡ | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Usually becomes [j], [ʔ], or is not pronounced in modern Eastern dialects. |
| Dālaṯ (qšīṯā) | Template:Script/Hebrew | d | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Dālaṯ rakkīḵtā | Template:Script/Hebrew | ḏ | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | main}} is left unspirantized in some modern Eastern dialects. |
| Kāp̄ (qšīṯā) | Template:Script/Hebrew | k | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Kāp̄ rakkīḵtā | Template:Script/Hebrew | ḵ | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | |
| Pē (qšīṯā) | Template:Script/Hebrew | p | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Pē rakkīḵtā | Template:Script/Hebrew or Template:Script/Hebrew | p̄ | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} or {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | main}} is not found in most modern Eastern dialects. Instead, it either is left unspirantized or sometimes appears as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. Pē is the only letter in the Eastern variant of the alphabet that is spirantized by the addition of a semicircle instead of a single dot. |
| Taw (qšīṯā) | Template:Script/Hebrew | t | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | Taw rakkīḵtā | Template:Script/Hebrew | ṯ | {{#invoke:IPA|main}} | main}} is left unspirantized in some modern Eastern dialects. |
The mnemonic Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) is often used to remember the six letters that are able to be spirantized (see also: Begadkepat).
In the East Syriac variant of the alphabet, spirantization marks are usually omitted when they interfere with vowel marks. The degree to which letters can be spirantized varies from dialect to dialect as some dialects have lost the ability for certain letters to be spirantized. For native words, spirantization depends on the letter's position within a word or syllable, location relative to other consonants and vowels, gemination, etymology, and other factors. Foreign words do not always follow the rules for spirantization.
Template:TransliterationEdit
Syriac uses two (usually) horizontal dotsTemplate:Efn above a letter within a word, similar in appearance to diaeresis, called Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, literally 'placings', also known in some grammars by the Hebrew name Template:Transliteration [{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}], 'plural'), to indicate that the word is plural.<ref>Nöldeke, Theodor and Julius Euting (1880). Kurzgefasste syrische Grammatik. Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. [translated to English as Compendious Syriac Grammar, by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate 1904. 2003 edition. pp. 10–11. Template:ISBN]</ref> These dots, having no sound value in themselves, arose before both eastern and western vowel systems as it became necessary to mark plural forms of words, which are indistinguishable from their singular counterparts in regularly-inflected nouns. For instance, the word Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'king') is consonantally identical to its plural Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'kings'); the Template:Transliteration above the word Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) clarifies its grammatical number and pronunciation. Irregular plurals also receive Template:Transliteration even though their forms are clearly plural: e.g. Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'house') and its irregular plural Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, 'houses'). Because of redundancy, some modern usage forgoes Template:Transliteration points when vowel markings are present.
There are no firm rules for which letter receives Template:Transliteration; the writer has full discretion to place them over any letter. Typically, if a word has at least one Template:Transliteration, then Template:Transliteration are placed over the Template:Transliteration that is nearest the end of a word (and also replace the single dot above it: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). Other letters that often receive Template:Transliteration are low-rising letters—such as Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration—or letters that appear near the middle or end of a word.
Besides plural nouns, Template:Transliteration are also placed on:
- plural adjectives, including participles (except masculine plural adjectives/participles in the absolute state);
- the cardinal numbers 'two' and the feminine forms of 11–19, though inconsistently;
- and certain feminine plural verbs: the 3rd person feminine plural perfect and the 2nd and 3rd person feminine plural imperfect.
Template:TransliterationEdit
Syriac uses a line, called Template:Transliteration ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, literally 'concealer', also known by the Latin term linea occultans in some grammars), to indicate a silent letter that can occur at the beginning or middle of a word.<ref>Nöldeke, Theodor and Julius Euting (1880). Kurzgefasste syrische Grammatik. Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. [translated to English as Compendious Syriac Grammar, by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate 1904. 2003 edition. pp. 11–12. Template:ISBN]</ref> In Eastern Syriac, this line is diagonal and only occurs above the silent letter (e.g. Template:Script/Mdnh, 'city', pronounced Template:Transliteration, not *Template:Transliteration, with the Template:Transliteration over the Template:Transliteration, assimilating with the Template:Transliteration). The line can only occur above a letter Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration or Template:Transliteration (which comprise the mnemonic {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, 'the works of light'). In Western Syriac, this line is horizontal and can be placed above or below the letter (e.g. Template:Script/Serto, 'city', pronounced Template:Transliteration, not *Template:Transliteration).
Classically, Template:Transliteration was not used for silent letters that occurred at the end of a word (e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration, '[my] lord'). In modern Turoyo, however, this is not always the case (e.g. Template:Script/Serto Template:Transliteration, '[my] lord').
Latin alphabet and romanizationEdit
In the 1930s, a Latin alphabet for Syriac was developed with some material promulgated.<ref> Moscati, Sabatino, et al. The Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, Germany, 1980.</ref> Although it did not supplant the Syriac script, the usage of the Latin script in the Syriac community has still become widespread because most of the Assyrian diaspora is in Europe and the Anglosphere, where the Latin alphabet is predominant.
In Syriac romanization, some letters are altered and would feature diacritics and macrons to indicate long vowels, schwas and diphthongs. The letters with diacritics and macrons are mostly upheld in educational or formal writing.<ref>S. P. Brock, "Three Thousand Years of Aramaic literature", in Aram,1:1 (1989)</ref>
| A | B | C | Ç | D | E | Ə | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | Ş | T | Ț | U | V | X | Z | Ƶ | Ь |
The Latin letters below are commonly used when it comes to transliteration from the Syriac script to Latin:<ref>Syriac Romanization Table</ref>
| A | Ā | B | Ḇ | C | D | Ḏ | E | Ē | Ĕ | F | G | H | Ḥ | I | J | K | Ḵ | L | M | N | O | Ō | P | Q | R | S | Š | Ṣ | T | Ṭ | Ṯ | U | Ū | V | W | X | Y | Z |
- Ā is used to denote a long "a" sound or [ɑː] as heard in "car".
- Ḏ is used to represent a voiced dental fricative [ð], the "th" sound as heard in "that".
- Ē is used to denote a long close-mid unrounded vowel, [eː].
- Ĕ is to represent an "eh" sound or [ɛ], as heard in Ninwĕ
- Ḥ represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative ([ħ]), only upheld by Turoyo and Chaldean speakers.
- Ō represents a long "o" sound or [ɔː].
- Š is a voiceless postalveolar fricative ([ʃ]), the English digraph "sh".
- Ṣ denotes an emphatic "s" or "thick s", [sˤ].
- Ṭ is an emphatic "t", [tˤ], as heard in the word ṭla ("three").
- Ū is used to represent an "oo" sound or the close back rounded vowel [uː].
Sometimes additional letters may be used and they tend to be:
- Ḇ may be used in the transliteration of biblical Aramaic to show the voiced bilabial fricative allophone value ("v") of the letter Bēṯ.
- Ī denotes a schwa sound, usually when transliterating biblical Aramaic.
- Ḵ is utilized for the voiceless velar fricative, [x], or the "kh" sound.
- Ṯ is used to denote the "th" sound or the voiceless dental fricative, [θ].
UnicodeEdit
The Syriac alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0. Additional letters for Suriyani Malayalam were added in June, 2017 with the release of version 10.0.
BlocksEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
The Unicode block for Syriac is U+0700–U+074F:
The Syriac Abbreviation (a type of overline) can be represented with a special control character called the Syriac Abbreviation Mark (U+070F).
The Unicode block for Suriyani Malayalam specific letters is called the Syriac Supplement block and is U+0860–U+086F:
Template:Unicode chart Syriac Supplement
HTML code tableEdit
Note: HTML numeric character references can be in decimal format (&#DDDD;) or hexadecimal format (&#xHHHH;). For example, ܕ and ܕ (1813 in decimal) both represent U+0715 SYRIAC LETTER DALATH.
Template:TransliterationEdit
| ܕ | ܓ | ܒ | ܐ |
| ܕ | ܓ | ܒ | ܐ |
|---|---|---|---|
| ܚ | ܙ | ܘ | ܗ |
| ܚ | ܙ | ܘ | ܗ |
| ܠ | ܟܟ | ܝ | ܛ |
| ܠ | ܟ | ܝ | ܛ |
| ܥ | ܣ | ܢܢ | ܡܡ |
| ܥ | ܤ | ܢ | ܡ |
| ܪ | ܩ | ܨ | ܦ |
| ܪ | ܩ | ܨ | ܦ |
| ܬ | ܫ | ||
| ܬ | ܫ |
Vowels and unique charactersEdit
| ܲ | ܵ |
| ܲ | ܵ |
|---|---|
| ܸ | ܹ |
| ܸ | ܹ |
| ܼ | ܿ |
| ܼ | ܿ |
| ̈ | ̰ |
| ̈ | ̰ |
| ݁ | ݂ |
| ݁ | ݂ |
| ܀ | ܂ |
| ܀ | ܂ |
| ܄ | ݇ |
| ܄ | ݇ |
See alsoEdit
- Abjad
- Alphabet
- Aramaic alphabet
- Mandaic alphabet
- Mongolian script
- Sogdian alphabet
- Syriac language
- Syriac Malayalam
- Old Uyghur alphabet
- History of the alphabet
- List of writing systems
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
SourcesEdit
- Coakley, J. F. (2002). Robinson's Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.
- Hatch, William (1946). An Album of Dated Syriac Manuscripts. Boston: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, reprinted in 2002 by Gorgias Press. Template:ISBN.
- Kiraz, George (2015). The Syriac Dot: a Short History. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. Template:ISBN.
- Michaelis, Ioannis Davidis (1784). Grammatica Syriaca.
- Nestle, Eberhard (1888). Syrische Grammatik mit Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar. Berlin: H. Reuther's Verlagsbuchhandlung. [translated to English as Syriac grammar with bibliography, chrestomathy and glossary, by R. S. Kennedy. London: Williams & Norgate 1889].
- Nöldeke, Theodor and Julius Euting (1880). Kurzgefasste syrische Grammatik. Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. [translated to English as Compendious Syriac Grammar, by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate 1904. 2003 edition: Template:ISBN].
- Phillips, George (1866). A Syriac Grammar. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, & Co.; London: Bell & Daldy.
- Robinson, Theodore Henry (1915). Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar. Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.
- Rudder, Joshua. Learn to Write Aramaic: A Step-by-Step Approach to the Historical & Modern Scripts. n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 220 pp. Template:ISBN Includes the Estrangela (pp. 59–113), Madnhaya (pp. 191–206), and the Western Serto (pp. 173–190) scripts.
- Segal, J. B. (1953). The Diacritical Point and the Accents in Syriac. Oxford University Press, reprinted in 2003 by Gorgias Press. Template:ISBN.
- Thackston, Wheeler M. (1999). Introduction to Syriac. Bethesda, MD: Ibex Publishers, Inc. Template:ISBN.
External linksEdit
- The Syriac alphabet at Omniglot.com
- The Syriac alphabet at Ancientscripts.com
- Unicode Entity Codes for the Syriac Script
- Meltho Fonts for Syriac
- How to write Aramaic – learn the Syriac cursive scripts
- Aramaic and Syriac handwriting Template:Webarchive Template:Transliteration (classical)
- Learn Assyrian (Syriac-Aramaic) OnLine Template:Transliteration (eastern)
- GNU FreeFont Unicode font family with Syriac range in its sans-serif face.
- Learn Syriac Latin Alphabet on Wikiversity
Template:Northwest Semitic abjad Template:List of writing systems Template:Assyrian topics