George Mallory
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George Herbert Leigh-Mallory (18 June 1886 – 8 or 9 June 1924) was an English mountaineer who participated in the first three British Mount Everest expeditions from the early to mid-1920s. He and climbing partner Andrew "Sandy" Irvine were purportedly last seen ascending near Everest's summit during the 1924 expedition, sparking debate as to whether they reached it before they died.
Born in Cheshire, England, Mallory became a student at Winchester College, where a teacher recruited him for an excursion in the Alps, and he developed a strong natural climbing ability. After graduating from Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he became friends with prominent intellectuals, he taught at Charterhouse School while honing his climbing skills in the Alps and the English Lake District. He pioneered new routes and became a respected figure in the British climbing community.
His service in the First World War interrupted his climbing, but he returned with renewed vigour after the war. Mallory's most notable contributions to mountaineering were his expeditions to Everest. In 1921, he participated in the first British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition, which established the North Col-North Ridge as a viable route to the summit. In 1922, he took part in a second expedition to attempt the first ascent of Everest, in which his team achieved a world altitude record of Template:Convert<ref name=MtWorld>Template:Cite book</ref> using supplemental oxygen. They were awarded Olympic gold medals for alpinism.
During the 1924 expedition, Mallory and Irvine disappeared on Everest's Northeast Ridge. They were last seen alive approximately 800 vertical feet (240 metres) from the summit, sparking debate as to whether one or both reached it before they died. Mallory's body was found in 1999 by the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition at 26,760 feet, along with personal effects. The discovery provided clues, but no definitive proof about whether they reached the summit. When asked by a reporter why he wanted to climb Everest, Mallory purportedly replied, "Because it's there."
Early life and teaching careerEdit
ChildhoodEdit
George Herbert Leigh-Mallory was born at Newton Hall, Mobberley, Cheshire, on 18 June 1886,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn the first son and second child of the Reverend Herbert Leigh Mallory,Template:Sfn rector of the parish.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His mother was Annie Beridge Leigh-Mallory.Template:Sfn Mallory had two sisters, Mary HenriettaTemplate:Sfn and Annie Victoria (Avie),Template:Sfn and a younger brother, Trafford,Template:Sfn the Second World War Royal Air Force commander.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn At the end of 1891, the Mallorys moved from Newton Hall to Hobcroft House, Mobberley.Template:Sfn The family resided there until 1904, when they moved to Birkenhead, Cheshire.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory exhibited early audaciousness for climbing.Template:Sfn Aged 7, he climbed the roof of his father's church, St Wilfrid's, in Mobberley.Template:Sfn His sister Avie recalls, "He climbed everything that it was at all possible to climb."Template:Sfn Included in his climbing escapades were the drainpipes of Hobcroft House and the walls that divided the farmers' fields.Template:Sfn
1896–1905: Glengorse and Winchester CollegeEdit
In 1896, Mallory was sent to Glengorse boarding school in Eastbourne on the south coast of England, after the abrupt closure of his first preparatory school in West Kirby, following the death of its headmaster.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory won a maths scholarship to Winchester College, an English public school, where he started in September 1900.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At Winchester, he was proficient at sports, in addition to his academic ability.Template:Sfn He became the best gymnast in the school, the only one capable of performing the giant swing on the horizontal bar.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In July 1904, Mallory was a member of the Winchester team who won the Ashburton Shield for rifle shooting at Bisley.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The housemaster of College, the boarding house for scholars, R. L. G. Irving, was an accomplished mountaineer and a member of the Alpine Club.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In 1904, Irving was searching for new climbing companions after the death in an accident of the partner with whom he had done most of his climbing.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Irving recruited Mallory and fellow pupil and friend, Harry Gibson,<ref name="harry-os-gibson">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Refn for a trip to the Alps.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In early August 1904, Irving, Mallory, and Gibson travelled to the Alps for Mallory's first high-altitude mountaineering.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In his final year at Winchester, Mallory studied history instead of mathematics.Template:Sfn After sitting his exams, he was awarded a history scholarship, known as a sizarship, to Magdalene College, Cambridge.Template:Sfn
1905–09: Magdalene College, CambridgeEdit
In October 1905 Mallory entered Magdalene College to study history;Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A. C. Benson was his tutor, and became infatuated with Mallory.Template:Sfn On 6 February 1907, at Christ's College, Mallory dined with Charles Edward Sayle, under-librarian at Cambridge University Library.Template:Sfn At Sayle's house on Trumpington Street, Mallory met undergraduates with whom he established enduring friendships;Template:Sfn painter Jacques Raverat, surgeon and author Geoffrey Keynes were among them.Template:Sfn He became good friends with poet Rupert Brooke and psychoanalyst James Strachey.Template:Sfn On 12 February 1909, Mallory met Geoffrey Winthrop Young and developed a good friendship.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Through James and Geoffrey, Mallory got to know their brothers, Lytton Strachey and John Maynard Keynes, who were members of the Bloomsbury Group.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Through the Stracheys, he befriended their cousin, painter Duncan Grant,Template:Refn a Bloomsbury member.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His letters attest to the flirtatious, homoerotic aspect of these friendships. Following his engagement in 1914, he wrote to one-time sex partner<ref>Peter & Leni Gillman, The Wildest Dream: The Biography of George Mallory, The Mountaineers Books, Seattle 2000, p120.</ref> James Strachey: "It can hardly be a shock to you that I desert the ranks of the fashionable homosexualists (and yet I am still in part of that persuasion) unless you think I have turned monogamist. But you may be assured that this last catastrophe has not happened."<ref name="gm-letters">Template:Cite news</ref>
Mallory developed into an accomplished rower at Magdalene.Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In October 1906, he was elected secretary of the Magdalene Boat Club and captain of boats from 1907 to 1908.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory joined the University Fabian Society, and acted as college secretary on the University Women's Suffrage Association committee.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Marlowe Society was established in 1907Template:Sfn and Mallory acted in its first production Doctor Faustus.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Academically, in May 1907, Mallory sat Part I of the history tripos, achieving a third class.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In 1908, in Part II, he attained a second class degree.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory had to consider a future career.Template:Sfn In 1907,Template:Sfn he had consulted deputy headmaster of Winchester, Howard Rendall, about becoming a teacher there, but Rendall gave him a stern retort;Template:Sfn Mallory informed his tutor, A. C. Benson; "He says that as I have nothing to teach and would probably teach it badly, there is not the least chance of ever getting to Winchester."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Rendall suggested he go into the church and Mallory unenthusiastically pondered following in his father's footsteps, contemplating "parish work of some kind ... I'm at variance with so many parsons that I meet. They're excessively good, most of them much better than I can ever hope to be, but their sense of goodness seems sometimes to displace their reason."Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Benson suggested Mallory return to Magdalene for a fourth year, where he could improve upon his degree,Template:Sfn Mallory agreed and settled into rooms at Pythagoras House, a short distance from Magdalene.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In February 1909, Geoffrey Winthrop Young invited Mallory to Wales for a climbing trip at Easter.Template:Sfn After Mallory's return to Magdalene, Young sent him an application form for the Climbers' Club, and in May 1909, Mallory was elected a member.Template:Sfn The subject for the Members' Prize Essay in 1909 was James Boswell, biographer of Samuel Johnson; and Mallory decided to enter.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was awarded second place;Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Benson encouraged Mallory to submit his essay for publicationTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and in 1912, his Boswell the Biographer, was published by Smith, Elder & Co.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In July 1909, Mallory's education at Magdalene was complete.Template:Sfn
1909–10: InterimEdit
In October 1909, the painter Simon Bussy, whose wife Dorothy was the sister of Lytton and James Strachey, invited Mallory to spend the winter with them at their villa in Roquebrune in the Alpes-Maritimes.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory, who had recently received a small family inheritance, accepted their offer and travelled to France in early November to stay with them.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He stayed in Paris for a month to improve his French by reading, attending the theatre, music hall, Sorbonne lectures, and conversing.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In April 1910, Mallory returned to Cambridge, contemplating his career prospects.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In May he took a temporary teaching post at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, which lasted two weeks.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn In July, Mallory received a letter from the headmaster of Charterhouse, an English public school, Gerald Henry Rendall,Template:Refn offering a job teaching Latin, mathematics, history, and French, which Mallory accepted.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
1910–14: Charterhouse SchoolEdit
In September 1910, Mallory began teaching at Charterhouse, as an assistant headmaster.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn One problem was his youthful appearance, and so he was often mistaken by parents for a student.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His teaching methods relied on infectious enthusiasm and avuncular mannerisms rather than imposing his authority.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He followed the styles of Irving and Benson, who sought to educate through mutual respect, getting to know pupils as individuals and repudiating the authoritarianism of most British schools.Template:Sfn Several colleagues developed a hostile attitude towards him, due to his informal teaching methods, which they considered undermined discipline.Template:Sfn He recommended students read literature extensively, write essays on subjects such as hypocrisy, candour, and popularity, and he engaged them in discussion on politics and literature.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He took them on excursions to places of aesthetic scenery and architectural landmarks.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Robert Graves, a student from 1909 to 1914, said Mallory was the best teacher and first genuine friend he ever had.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn In his autobiography, Good-Bye to All That, Graves wrote fondly of Mallory, who encouraged him in poetry and,Template:Sfn took him climbing in Snowdon.Template:Sfn Irving and Geoffrey Winthrop Young proposed Mallory for the Alpine Club, and in December 1910, he was elected a member.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn During the summer of 1913, Mallory collaborated with Graves and other students, to produce a magazine called Green Chartreuse, intended to rival other school magazines, with its first publication on Old Carthusian Day, 5 July 1913.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory presented lectures on Italian painting in spring 1914, engaging students in a "rather philosophical" discussion about Botticelli, Michelangelo, and Raphael.Template:Sfn
Climbing in EuropeEdit
The AlpsEdit
Mallory embarked on eight expeditions in the Alps and achieved four first ascents. His first climb was on 5 August 1904, when he, Irving, and Gibson ascended Mont Vélan on the Swiss-Italian border, but had to retreat Template:Convert below the summit because Mallory and Gibson suffered from altitude sickness.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 13 August, they reached the summit of Dufourspitze, the third-highest peak in Western Europe.Template:Sfn On 26 August, Irving and Mallory summited Mont Blanc, at Template:Convert, the highest mountain in Western Europe, marking Mallory's entry into high-altitude mountaineering.Template:Sfn
In January 1905, Graham Irving established the Winchester Ice Club;Template:Sfn Mallory, Gibson, Harry Tyndale,Template:Sfn and Guy Bullock became members.Template:Sfn In August, the Ice Club travelled to the Alps.Template:Sfn Mallory would not return for another four years, when he achieved a first ascent of the Southeast Ridge of Nesthorn, with Young and Charles Robertson on 4 August 1909.Template:Sfn Mallory wrote to his mother, "We were out 21 hours and were altogether pleased with ourselves."Template:Sfn Mallory almost died after missing a hold above an overhang. On 7 August, they crossed the mountain pass Grünhornlücke, followed by the Fiescher Glacier, and climbed to the summit via the Southeast Ridge of the highest mountain in the Bernese Alps, Finsteraarhorn, at Template:Convert,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn graded approximately 5.8, using the Yosemite Decimal System (YDS). One of Mallory's closest friends and climbing companions, whom he met in Switzerland on this trip, was a woman named Cottie Sanders, who became a novelist using the pseudonym of Ann Bridge.Template:Sfn<ref name="cottie-sanders">Template:Cite ODNB</ref> Their relationship was elusive; Sanders was either a "climbing friend" or "casual sweetheart."Template:Sfn After Mallory died, Cottie wrote a memoir of him, which was never published but provided much of the material used by later biographers.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
At the beginning of August 1911, Mallory returned to the Alps with Irving and Tyndale.Template:Sfn On 9 August, they reached the summit of Herbétet, by way of a first ascent of its Western Ridge.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 18 August, Irving, Mallory, and Tyndale reached the summit of Mont Maudit, via the third ascent of its Southeast Ridge, and Mont Blanc.<ref name="frontierridge-maudit">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 1917, Mallory rewrote an impassioned account about the Maudit ascent.Template:Sfn It was published in the Alpine Journal of 1918 and contained the question, "Have we vanquished an enemy? None but ourselves."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In August 1912, Mallory undertook his sixth expedition to the Alps, along with Harold Porter and Hugh Pope.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn On 17 August, they established a new line on the West Face of Dent Blanche, graded 5.6–5.7.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 2 August 1919, Mallory and Porter set out from Montenvers and proceeded up the Mer de Glace to the Glacier de Trélaporte, from where they ascended a new route to the summit of Aiguille des Grands Charmoz, likely graded 5.7.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Three days later, they climbed a new route to the summit of Aiguille du Midi,Template:Sfn at Template:Convert. This route, rectified by the climber Jean-Louis Urquizar in 1971, is now known as Rectified Mallory-Porter, totalling Template:Convert in elevation gain and graded approximately 5.8–5.9.<ref name="mallory-porter-route">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="aiguille-du-midi-mpr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ScotlandEdit
On 6 April 1906, Mallory, Irving, and Leach reached the summit of Ben Nevis,Template:Refn climbing in snow via Observatory Gully and Tower Gully on the northeast face.Template:Sfn The following day, the trio ascended Stob Bàn, following the corniced main arête to the summit.Template:Sfn On 9 April, they climbed to the summit of Càrn Mòr Dearg, which preceded a second successful ascent of Ben Nevis on the same day via North Trident Buttress.Template:Sfn On 10 April, they successfully climbed a feature on Ben Nevis—that they termed East Zmutt Ridge after Zmutt Ridge on the Matterhorn—likely graded YDS 5.5–5.6.Template:Sfn On 12 April, Mallory, Irving, and Leach attained a successful ascent of Ben Nevis in snow and ice via North-East Buttress.Template:Sfn Their achievement was the second recorded winter ascent of this route, after the first in 1896.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
On 28 July 1918, Mallory, David Randall Pye, and Leslie Garnet Shadbolt,Template:Sfn climbing together, made a new route on the North Face of Sgùrr a' Mhadaidh on the Isle of Skye, Scotland, graded 5.5–5.6.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 31 July, the trio established another new route with Mallory leading on the Western Buttress of the crag, Sron na Ciche, located in the Cuillin mountains; this route is now known as Mallory's Slab and Groove, and graded about 5.5.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
WalesEdit
On 14 September 1907, Mallory accomplished his first two climbs in Wales: North GullyTemplate:Sfn and North Buttress on Tryfan.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 18 September,Template:Sfn Mallory, Keynes, and Wilson climbed Terminal Arête, on Lliwedd's East Buttress,Template:Sfn and inadvertently dislodged a large rock when finishing their climb.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Much to their consternation, the rock almost hit James Thomson and partner E.S. Reynolds as they climbed below on a new route, which they aptly named Avalanche Route.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
On Craig yr Ysfa, the triad climbed two routes: Great Gully, at Template:Convert,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Amphitheatre Buttress, at Template:Convert, both graded about 5.5.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory returned to Snowdonia in August 1908, accompanied by his brother, Trafford.Template:Sfn Mallory, climbing solo, established the first ascent of The Slab Climb on the East Buttress of Lliwedd,Template:Sfn now known as Mallory's Slab, at Template:Convert, and graded 5.5.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The ascent of The Slab Climb occurred due to Mallory scaling it to retrieve his pipe, which he had left behind on a ledge known as Bowling Green.Template:Sfn In April 1909, Mallory and Geoffrey Winthrop Young journeyed to Pen-y-Pass.Template:Sfn On the cliffs of Craig yr Ysfa, Mallory and Young established three new ascents and climbed The Slab Climb (Mallory's Slab) on the East Buttress of Lliwedd, which Young described as "The hardest rocks I have done."Template:Sfn
In September 1911, Mallory and his sister Mary were joined by Harold Porter, Mallory's climbing partner, and stayed at the Snowdon Ranger Inn on the shore of Llyn Cwellyn.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory and Porter pioneered new routes that elevated Mallory to the pinnacle of British climbing.Template:Sfn On Y Garn, with Porter leading Mallory on the crux, they ascended a new route, now known as Mallory's Ridge, at Template:Convert, graded 5.9–5.10a.Template:Sfn<ref name="mallory's-ridge">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This route defeated James Thomson in 1910, who abandoned it on the most challenging pitch, a sixty-foot segment of vertical rock.Template:Sfn
EnglandEdit
Mallory's first rock climbing experience in England transpired during a nine-day excursion to the Lake District in September 1908 with Geoffrey Keynes, Harry Gibson, and Harold Porter.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their initial climb was Kern Knotts Crack on Great Gable, which is graded 5.5.Template:Sfn The following day they climbed Napes Needle, a rock pinnacle on Great Gable, at Template:Convert, graded approximately 5.5.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Also on Great Gable, they climbed Eagle's Nest Ridge Direct, graded approximately 5.8.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They accomplished a successful ascent of North Climb on Pillar Rock,Template:Sfn graded YDS 5.6.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
On 21 September 1908, they claimed two new routes on the Ennerdale face of Great Gable:Template:Sfn Mallory's Left-Hand Route, at Template:Convert, graded YDS 5.5, and Mallory's Right-Hand Route, at Template:Convert, graded about 5.8.Template:Sfn<ref name="mallory's-left-hand-route">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="mallory's-right-hand-route">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In August 1913,Template:Sfn Mallory and Geoffrey Winthrop Young achieved a new route, Pinnacle Traverse, at Template:Convert, graded 5.4, on the crag, Carn Lés Boel, in Cornwall.Template:Sfn<ref name="pinnacle-traverse">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On 7 September 1913, Mallory and Alan Goodfellow, a Charterhouse student, created Mallory's Variation, a new route on Abbey Buttress, Great Gable, where Mallory finished the route by ascending a twenty-foot slab on tenuous grips, rather than exiting to the right.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 8 September, with Mallory leading Goodfellow, the pair established another new route, this time on the West Face of Low Man, Pillar Rock, at Template:Convert, and graded 5.9–5.10a, which they named North-West by West and now known as Mallory's Route.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Climbers have rated Everest's Second Step at about 5.9.Template:Sfn<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/>
Marriage and the First World WarEdit
Christiana Ruth Turner<ref name="ruth-turner-ancestry">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="ruth-mallory-bio">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> was a daughter of architect Hugh Thackeray TurnerTemplate:Sfn and embroiderer Mary Elizabeth Turner.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn Mallory and the Turner family developed a close friendship and he regularly visited their dwelling at Westbrook.Template:Sfn In April 1914, Mallory joined Thackeray and his daughters on a holiday in Venice, where Mallory and Ruth fell precipitately in love.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 1 May 1914, at Westbrook, Mallory and Ruth became engaged.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Thackeray purchased a six-bedroom house for them, named The Holt, in Godalming, Surrey.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 29 July 1914, six days before Britain entered the First World War, Mallory and Ruth were married in Godalming,Template:Refn with Mallory's father performing the ceremony and Geoffrey Winthrop Young acting as best man.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory and Ruth had two daughters and a son: Frances Clare (1915–2001),Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Beridge Ruth, known as "Berry" (1917–1953),Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and John (1920–2011).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="george-mallory-surrey">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore Alt URL</ref>
Mallory enlisted in the war effort and started artillery training at Weymouth Camp in January 1916.Template:Sfn Frank Fletcher, headmaster of Charterhouse, had initially challenged Mallory's inquiries about enlisting and asked the government about policies regarding schoolmasters enlisting.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory received additional training at the School of Siege Artillery at Lydd Camp.Template:Sfn He arrived in France in May 1916Template:Sfn and fought at the Battle of the Somme in the 40th Siege Battery.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Later that year, he was granted leave,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn spending ten days at Westbrook House with Ruth and daughter Clare before returning to France on Boxing Day.Template:Sfn
He was reassigned as an orderly officer, serving as a colonel's assistant at the 30th Heavy Artillery Group headquarters, three miles behind the front line, for the first weeks of 1917.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn At the beginning of February 1917, the command recommended Mallory for a staff lieutenancy; he rejected it and was instead assigned a liaison officer position to a French unit.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At the end of March, he applied to rejoin the 40th Siege Battery, which had moved to a new location.Template:Sfn On 7 April, during the prelude to the Battle of Arras, he was back at the front with the 40th Siege Battery in an exposed observation post, directing artillery fire.Template:SfnTemplate:Quote boxIn September Mallory was sent, under new orders, to Avington Park Camp near Winchester, and was transferred from the Siege Battery to a Heavy Battery. Mallory trained at the camp with the Royal Artillery's new generation of 60-pounder heavy guns.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="60-pounder">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In October 1917, Mallory was promoted lieutenant and commenced a training course for newly promoted officers at Avington Park Camp.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="lieutenantrga">Template:London Gazette</ref> On 23 September 1918, Mallory was reassigned to the 515th Siege Battery, stationed between Arras and the French coast.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On the evening of 11 November, at the officers' club in Cambrai, Mallory celebrated peace with his brother Trafford.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn Due to the British requirement to demobilise more than a million men and the dearth of ships, Mallory did not return to England until January 1919.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn
The lure of EverestEdit
Following his return from France, Mallory and his family re-established themselves in their previous residence, The Holt in Godalming, Surrey.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At the end of January 1919, Mallory resumed his teaching position at Charterhouse, where he taught English and history.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory felt dissatisfied as a schoolmaster, devoting more attention to mountaineering issues, the direction of international politics, and the fundamental objectives of education, and pondering how he could find more time for writing.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In January 1921, representatives of the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club jointly established the Mount Everest Committee to organise and finance an expedition to Mount Everest.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The committee consisted of four RGS members and four Alpine Club members; from the RGS were Sir Francis Younghusband, Arthur Robert Hinks, Edward Lygon Somers-Cocks, and Colonel Evan Maclean Jack; from the Alpine Club were Professor John Norman Collie, John Percy Farrar, Charles Francis Meade, and John Edward Caldwell Eaton.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The committee's primary objective in 1921 was a thorough reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches to determine the most viable route to the summit, and in 1922 to return for a second expedition, using this route for an all-out attempt to reach the summit.Template:Sfn On 23 January 1921, Mallory received written correspondence from John Percy Farrar, secretary of the Alpine Club, its former president and the nascent Mount Everest Committee member.Template:Sfn In the letter, Farrar asked Mallory if he would be interested in participating in an expedition to Everest: "It appears an attempt on Everest will occur this summer. The party would depart in early April and return in October. Any ambitions?"Template:Sfn
Although grateful for the invitation, Mallory initially felt reluctant to accept it, knowing that his participation would mean a lengthy separation from his wife and young children, and he also expressed scepticism regarding the viability of the expedition.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Geoffrey Winthrop Young visited him at the Holt, Godalming when he learned of his hesitance and swiftly persuaded him and Ruth not to disregard the opportunity, saying that it would be an incredible adventure and earn him reputable renown for prospects in future professions as an educator or writer.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Young's arguments convinced Ruth, and she concurred that Mallory should join the expedition; realising it was "the opportunity of a lifetime," Mallory decided to participate.Template:Sfn On 9 February 1921, in Mayfair, London, Mallory met with Sir Francis Younghusband, chairman of the Mount Everest Committee; John Percy Farrar, a committee member; and Harold Raeburn, the assigned mountaineering leader of the 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At the meeting, Younghusband formally invited Mallory to join the expedition and was surprised to observe that he accepted without any evident emotion and exhibited no indication that he was brimming with enthusiasm.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In February 1921, Mallory officially tendered his resignation from his mastership at Charterhouse, changing his previous intended decision of resigning at the end of the summer term.Template:Sfn
On 8 April 1921, Mallory departed from the Port of Tilbury in Essex, England, on board SS Sardinia, and brought the final shipment of expedition supplies.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It was a solitary voyage, as the other expedition members had already departed or were in India.Template:Sfn
Everest expeditionsEdit
1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expeditionEdit
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The first Everest expedition in 1921 had the express objective of undertaking a reconnaissance of the mountain and its approaches to discover the most accessible route to its summit.Template:Sfn Expedition surveyors Henry Morshead, Oliver Wheeler and Indian surveyors, produced the first accurate maps of the region.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="oliver-wheeler-1921">Template:Cite news</ref> On 18 August at 3 am, after an arduous two-month-long reconnaissance of Everest's northern and eastern approaches, Mallory, Guy Bullock, Henry Morshead, and a porter left their high camp at approximately Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn From the western head of the Kharta Glacier, they ascended to the col of Lhakpa La, at Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn From the col of Lhakpa La, Template:Convert directly below them, was the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier, across which rises a Template:Convert wall of snow and ice leading to Everest's North Col, at Template:Convert, from where mountaineers can attain the summit via the North Col-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their preliminary reconnaissance was complete: they had discovered the gateway to the mountain.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 23 September Mallory, Bullock, Wheeler, and ten porters left their camp on Lhakpa La, descended into the East Rongbuk Glacier, and pitched camp at an elevation of Template:Convert,Template:Sfn Template:Convert from the beginning of the ascent to the North Col.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 24 September, the three expedition members and three porters, departed their camp, traversed Template:Convert across the East Rongbuk Glacier to the foot of the Template:Convert precipitous wall of snow and ice, which they arduously ascended, and reached the North Col.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On the col and above, gale force winds blew from the northwest, which made progress impossible, and they descended to their camp on the East Rongbuk Glacier.Template:Sfn Wheeler suffered from frostbite in his lower extremities, and Bullock was exhausted.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The next day, the severe winds had not abated and the porters were at the limits of their physical reserves, so Mallory decided to end the expedition.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
On 29 October, Mallory departed from Bombay, India, on board SS Malwa.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 9 November, Younghusband wrote to Mallory requesting he participate in the second expedition in 1922.Template:Sfn He expressed that waiting until 1923 was unviable as they could not afford to squander the opportunity the current benevolence of the Tibetans presented.Template:Sfn The letter awaited Mallory in Marseille, France.Template:Sfn Mallory wrote to his sister Avie, expressing reservations about returning to Everest in 1922.Template:Sfn His wife Ruth awaited him in Marseille, where they spent a holiday touring Provence.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They discussed his participation in the 1922 expedition and concluded he should not decline the opportunity.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 25 November, they arrived home,Template:Sfn a few days afterwards Mallory met Hinks in London and, within a week was included on a list of mountaineers who assented to participate in the 1922 expedition.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Lectures, writing, and preparation for the 1922 expeditionEdit
On 20 December, in the Queen's Hall, London, Mallory and Charles Howard-Bury delivered a narrative on the 1921 expedition at a combined meeting of the Royal Geographical Society and Alpine Club.Template:Sfn In exchange for a quarter of the revenue earned, the Mount Everest Committee requested Mallory deliver lectures throughout Britain and contribute to the official expedition book, Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921.Template:Sfn On 10 January 1922, Mallory delivered his initial public speech in the Queen's Hall and then journeyed extensively around Britain, filling 30 lecture engagements.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The financial results were lucrative, as his 25% per cent share earned him £400, which exceeded his annual salary as a Charterhouse teacher.Template:Sfn Preceding his departure for the 1922 British Mount Everest expedition, Mallory completed his written contribution to Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance, 1921,Template:Sfn titled The Reconnaissance Of The Mountain, consisting of six chapters: The Northern Approach, The Northern Approach (continued), The Eastern Approach, The Assault, Weather And Conditions Of Snow and The Route To The Summit.Template:Sfn He reviewed expedition equipment and assisted the Committee in preparations for the 1922 expedition.Template:Sfn
1922 British Mount Everest expeditionEdit
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Mallory returned to the Himalayas as a member of the 1922 British Everest expedition.Template:Sfn The expedition's objective was to become the first to summit Everest.Template:Sfn On 2 March, Mallory, Howard Somervell, John Noel, Edward Strutt, George Finch, and Arthur Wakefield,Template:Sfn crossed the English Channel, travelled by train to Marseille and departed on board the passenger liner Caledonia<ref name="caledonia-1894">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> on 3 March.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory engaged in deck tennis with Somervell and Wakefield and attended Finch's oxygen class, which enabled him to overcome his ambivalence about its implementation.Template:Sfn After docking in Bombay, they arrived in Darjeeling on 20 March, where they coalesced with the rest of the expedition.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Members left in groups for the march to Phari.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory's group departed under expedition leader General Charles Granville Bruce,Template:Sfn arriving in Phari on 6 April and joined the following day by the remainder of the expedition.Template:Sfn They arrived at the Rongbuk Monastery on 30 April.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 1 May, the expedition pitched Base Camp at an altitude of Template:Convert, Template:Convert below the junction of the Rongbuk Glacier and East Rongbuk Glacier.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
First summit attempt, Mallory, Somervell, Norton, and MorsheadEdit
On 20 May, at 7:30Template:Nbspam, Mallory, Howard Somervell, Edward Norton, Henry Morshead, and four porters began their day at Camp IV, on the North Col at an elevation of Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At 8Template:Nbspam, after getting roped up, the eight men commenced their ascent without supplemental oxygen.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They aimed to climb the North Ridge and establish Camp V at an altitude of Template:Convert, from where they planned an attempt to reach the summit.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At 11:30Template:Nbspam, they attained an elevation of Template:Convert, a gain of Template:Convert from the North Col, in Template:Frac hours, a vertical climbing rate of Template:Convert per hour, including stops.Template:Sfn Mallory estimated that from their present position, it would necessitate three hours to ascend Template:Convert and pitch Camp V there, which left little time for the porters to return to Camp IV on the North Col before nightfall, and was uncertain of finding a well-sheltered area from the strong winds on the lee-side of the North Ridge above them.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Therefore, they abandoned their initial plan and erected Camp V at their current altitude of Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The four porters departed for the North Col camp at 3Template:Nbsppm, and Mallory, Somervell, Norton, and Morshead spent the night at Camp V.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The next day, at 8Template:Nbspam, the four mountaineers were roped up and commenced their attempt to reach the summit from Camp V.Template:Sfn After a few steps, Morshead, suffering from frostbite, declared he was unable to continue and stayed behind at Camp V.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Adverse weather conditions prevented the climbers from beginning their ascent at 6Template:Nbspam as planned, leaving them behind schedule.Template:Sfn Other than possible mountaineering difficulties, their bid depended predominantly on time and speed.Template:Sfn Mallory's arithmetical computation estimated their vertical ascent rate at an unsatisfactory Template:Convert per hour, not including stops, from which it was apparent they would be climbing after nightfall, a risk they were unwilling to take, and decided that 2:30Template:Nbsppm was their retreat time.Template:Sfn At 2:15Template:Nbsppm, Mallory, Somervell, and Norton halted and lay against rocks on the North Ridge, where they remained for fifteen minutes and ate.Template:Sfn Their aneroid barometer read Template:Convert, a height later rectified and confirmed by a theodolite as Template:Convert, a new world altitude record.Template:Sfn<ref name=MtWorld/> They began their descent, and at 4:00Template:Nbsppm reached Camp V, where Morshead was waiting to join them for the return to Camp IV.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The four climbers roped up and recommenced their descent to Template:Convert.Template:Sfn As they descended, Morshead, who was third on the rope, slipped, and his impetus dragged Somervell and Norton down a slope leading directly to the East Rongbuk Glacier, several thousand feet below.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory, who was leading, immediately reacted by forcing the pick of his ice axe into the snow and hitching the rope around the axe's adze.Template:Sfn He stood in a secure position and held the rope in his right hand above the hitch, pressed downward with his left on the axe's shaft, and, using his entire weight, leaned towards the incline, securing the pick of his axe in the snow.Template:Sfn Commonly, in such circumstances, the belay will not hold when applying this technique, or the rope will snap.Template:Sfn Fortunately, the axe and rope held because their bodies' combined weight and momentum did not come upon the rope at once, which saved the lives of Somervell, Norton, and Morshead.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They regained their positions and reached their tents after nightfall, exhausted, hungry, frostbitten, and dehydrated.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Second summit attempt, Finch and BruceEdit
On 27 May, George Finch, Geoffrey Bruce, and Tejbir Bura departed from Camp VI at Template:Convert on the North Ridge, using supplemental oxygen for another attempt.Template:Sfn They took Bura, shouldering two spare oxygen cylinders, as far as the Northeast Shoulder at Template:Convert, where he descended, as part of the plan.Template:Sfn Finch and Bruce loaded up the extra cylinders, and dispensed their climbing rope to advance faster.Template:Sfn When they reached Template:Convert, they changed course and climbed towards a point on the Northeast Ridge, halfway between the Northeast Shoulder and the summit.Template:Sfn Not long after, Bruce, about Template:Convert below Finch when his oxygen apparatus failed, struggled upwards as his partner came to his aid, and they repaired the equipment.Template:Sfn It was approximately midday, and their aneroid barometer registered an elevation of Template:Convert, surpassing the previous attempt by Template:Convert, a new world record.<ref name=MtWorld/>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Weakened by hunger and exhaustion, they were unable to continue, and descended to Camp VI.Template:Sfn
Third summit attempt, Mallory, Somervell, Crawford and the North Col avalancheEdit
At the beginning of June, the expedition arranged a third attempt.Template:Sfn The plan was to ascend to their old Camp V at Template:Convert without using supplemental oxygen and then, using a cylinder each, continue to an elevation of Template:Convert where they would establish the new Camp V. From there the team would use the supplemental oxygen to attempt to reach the summit.Template:Sfn On 7 June at 8Template:Nbspam, Mallory, Somervell, Colin Crawford, and 14 porters left Camp III at Template:Convert and traversed the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier. The team reached the base of the Template:Convert wall of snow and ice rising to the North Col at 10Template:NbspamTemplate:Sfn and 15 minutes later Somervell, Mallory, Crawford, and one of the porters began the climb.Template:Sfn At 1:30Template:Nbsppm the group halted about Template:Convert below Camp IV to allow the other porters to join them.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn At about 1:50Template:Nbsppm, soon after the team continued the ascent, an avalanche began on an ice cliff above them and swept over the entire group.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Somervell, Mallory, Crawford and the porter managed to dig out from beneath the snowTemplate:Sfn and saw a group of four porters approximately Template:Convert below themTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn gesturing down the slope. The avalanche had swept the other 9 porters into a crevasse.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The remaining team members, later joined by expedition members John Noel and Arthur Wakefield, immediately began a search and rescue effort,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn finding eight of the nine porters. Only two had survived.Template:Sfn A memorial cairn was constructed at Camp IIITemplate:Sfn in honour of the seven who perished: Lhakpa, Narbu, Pasang, Pema, Sange, Temba, and Antarge.Template:Sfn<ref name="forgotten-scots"/> This marked the end of the 1922 expedition.Template:Sfn On 5 August, Mallory departed from India by ship, and arrived in England in mid-August.Template:Sfn
Announcement of a third expedition, lectures and writingEdit
The announcement that the Tibetan government had formally authorised the third expedition to Everest came on 16 October 1922 at a combined meeting of the Royal Geographical Society and Alpine Club at Methodist Central Hall, Westminster.Template:Sfn The Everest Committee resolved that the third expedition would commence in spring 1924.Template:Sfn The committee was eager to generate money to cover some of the 1924 expedition's costs and discussed terms for a lecture programme.Template:Sfn A large-scale lecture tour was organised, with Mallory and George Finch selected as the two speakers.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 20 October 1922, Mallory and Finch at the Central Hall, City of Westminster, delivered their first public lectures concerning the 1922 expedition, including photo illustrations.Template:Sfn<ref name="mallory-finch-lectures">Template:Cite news</ref> During the winter, Mallory presented a round of talks throughout Britain and Ireland, filling engagements in places such as Aberdeen, Brighton and Dublin,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn receiving 30% of the proceeds.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In addition to authoring Everest and Himalaya-related articles for periodicals and encyclopaedias to supplement his income, the committee requested he contribute to the official book of the 1922 expedition, The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922.Template:Sfn
North America lecture tour and writingEdit
The Everest Committee arranged for Mallory to travel to North America on a three-month lecture tour.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mallory and Ruth concurred he should strive for steady employment when he returned.Template:Sfn Mallory docked in New York on 17 January 1923.Template:Sfn After meeting lecture agent Keedick, Mallory was dismayed he had arranged only a meagre number of lectures, and had to wait 9 days to deliver his first speech.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He amended his lecture materials and wrote his finalised contribution to the 1922 expedition book, The Assault on Mount Everest: 1922.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His first contribution was titled The First Attempt, consisting of chapters: The Problem, The Highest Camp, and The Highest Point, and his second had chapters: The Third Attempt and Conclusions.Template:Sfn On 26 January, in Washington, D.C., Mallory delivered two lectures, which grossed $1000.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His next engagement was in Philadelphia, where he delivered two lectures for a combined audience of approximately 3000, grossing $1500.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn After an evaluation by medical professionals at the NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, they determined his lung capacity was twice that of the average person.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 4 February, Mallory gave a lecture at the Broadhurst Theatre, New York, in front of an audience of 550, filling only half the seating capacity.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The next day, The New York Times ran a story under the headline, SAYS BRANDY AIDED MT EVEREST PARTY; A Swig 27,000 Feet Up 'Cheered Us All Up Wonderfully,' Mallory Tells Audience, which diverted its coverage of the tour into anti-prohibition propaganda.Template:Sfn<ref name="swig-of-brandy">Template:Cite news</ref> A Toronto appointment resulted in a cancellation, and a Montreal appearance grossed a meagre $48.Template:Sfn In Boston, he delivered a lecture to the Appalachian Mountain Club, gave a speech in Cambridge, made a second visit to Philadelphia, where at the University Museum, he spoke to an audience of 1200, and delivered lectures in Toledo, Rochester, Iowa City, and Hanover, before a second engagement in Boston.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Under the headline, CLIMBING MOUNT EVEREST IS WORK FOR SUPERMEN, The New York Times of 18 March quoted Mallory as having replied to the question, "Why did you want to climb Mount Everest?" with the retort, "Because it's there."<ref name="supermen">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="hazards-alps">Template:Cite news</ref> The expression describes an existential desire to accomplish a physical and spiritual goal that mountaineers share.Template:Sfn Questions have arisen over the quote's authenticity and whether Mallory said it.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Some suggest it was an innovative paraphrase created by the reporter.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The tour was a financial failure; Mallory regretted that he, Ruth, and the children would have to live on less than he had anticipated, because he had no immediate prospects for permanent employment.Template:Sfn Mallory docked in Plymouth in early April.Template:Sfn
Cambridge lecturer and Olympic medalEdit
David Cranage, Secretary of the Board of Extra-Mural Studies at Cambridge University, and Arthur Robert Hinks of the Everest Committee travelled together on a train from London to Cambridge while Mallory was still in America, and discussed a vacancy that solved Mallory's situation.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Cranage advertised a vacancy for a history lecturer to educate in towns and villages outside of Cambridge and assist organising other courses.Template:Sfn They would conduct lectures in cooperation with the Workers' Educational Association, established to support working people who had missed the opportunity for education in favour of the privileged.Template:Sfn Cranage apprised Hinks about the job and questioned whether he knew possible candidates, Hinks suggested Mallory.Template:Sfn Hinks informed Mallory soon after he arrived back in England.Template:Sfn Mallory applied and following a successful interview was appointed on 18 May.Template:Sfn The occupation provided an annual income of £350, supplemented by lecture fees of £150 yearly.Template:Sfn He found a suitable residence for the family at Herschel House on Herschel Road, Cambridge.Template:Sfn Mallory immersed himself in his new employment with zeal, assisted organising the Golden Jubilee of Cambridge Local Lectures in July, and helped arrange summer schools during the Long Vacation.Template:Sfn In the fall of 1923, he commenced lectures in Hunstanton on the emergence of democracy in the 17th century; in Raunds, tutorial classes in modern history;Template:Refn and conducted classes in Halstead.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 18 October, Hinks wrote to Cranage, requesting Mallory obtain leave to participate in the 1924 expedition.Template:Sfn The Lecture Committee recommended six months' leave at half pay.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
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On 6 November, after a medical examination by a physician recommended by the Everest Committee, Mallory was declared "fit in every respect," eliminating the last potential obstacle between him and participation in the expedition.Template:Sfn On 5 February 1924, at the closing ceremony of the inaugural Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France, Pierre de Coubertin presented 13 gold medals, including for Mallory, for alpinism in recognition of the achievements of the 1922 Everest expedition members to Lt Col Edward Strutt, deputy expedition leader.<ref name="olympicmedals1922expedition">Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Refn
1924 British Mount Everest expeditionEdit
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The expedition members included leader General Charles Bruce,Template:Sfn Edward Norton as second-in-command and mountaineering leader; mountaineers Andrew Irvine, Howard Somervell, Geoffrey Bruce, Bentley Beetham, and John de Vars Hazard; mountaineer and oxygen officer Noel Odell; photographer and cinematographer John Noel; naturalist and medical officer Richard Hingston; and transportation officer Edward Shebbeare.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 29 February, Mallory and three other expedition members, Irvine, Beetham, and Hazard, departed from Liverpool on board SS California.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn During the voyage to India, Mallory read Maurois's Ariel, studied Hindustani, and worked through the logistics of supplies and aspects of the organisation for the expedition.Template:Sfn Determined to remain physically healthy, he exercised regularly in the gymnasium, threw a medicine ball with Irvine and Beetham, and periodically ran ten laps around the deck.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In mid-March, California arrived at her destination, berthing in Bombay.Template:Sfn Mallory, Irvine, Beetham, and Hazard travelled to Darjeeling, where they rendezvoused with the other participants.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 25 March, the entire expedition departed Darjeeling for the march to Everest Base Camp.Template:Sfn The trek of Template:Convert took them from Darjeeling to Kalimpong, Guatong, Jelep La, Yatung, Phari, Tang La, Donka La, Kampa Dzong, Tinki Dzong, Tinki La, Chiblung, Shekar Dzong, Chödzong, and Rongbuk, and they arrived at Base Camp on 29 April, at an altitude of Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 9 April, General Bruce had collapsed due to recurrent malaria and had ongoing cardiovascular issues during the trek to Base Camp.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Norton took charge, appointed Mallory as deputy and mountaineering leader, and Charles Bruce returned to India.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Mallory and Bruce's attemptEdit
On 1 June, at 6Template:Nbspam, Mallory and Geoffrey Bruce, without supplemental oxygen, and eight porters commenced their ascent from Camp IV on the North Col at Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They planned to climb the North Ridge and establish Camp V at approximately Template:Convert, where they would sleep overnight; the following day, they would ascend to about Template:Convert, where they would pitch Camp VI, sleep overnight, and on 3 June, attempt to reach the summit without oxygen.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The precise elevation for establishing Camps V and VI depended on the porters' abilities to carry heavy loads in the rarefied air and weather conditions.Template:Sfn As the two climbers and eight porters ascended the North Ridge with an average gradient of 45 degrees, they were exposed to a penetrating northwest wind.Template:Sfn At approximately Template:Convert, four of the porters could not ascend any further after reaching the limits of their endurance.Template:Sfn Mallory, Bruce, and the four remaining porters progressed to an elevation of Template:Convert, where they established Camp V.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Five porters descended to Camp IV, leaving three to shoulder loads the following day up to the location where the expedition intended to pitch Camp VI.Template:Sfn Mallory, Bruce, and the three porters slept at Camp V that night, and on the next day, only one porter was able to proceed, and two declared themselves sick and physically unable to carry loads.Template:Sfn Without enough porters to assist, the attempt was abandoned immediately, and the party returned to the North Col.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
On 2 June Somervell and Norton began a second attempt.Template:Sfn On 4 June Somervell and Norton left Camp VI and commenced their ascent to reach the summit. At midday, as they neared Template:Convert, Somervell, who was suffering from an extremely sore throat and a severe cough, felt it impracticable to continue.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Somervell sat on a ledge while Norton proceeded solo.Template:Sfn At 1Template:Nbsppm, suffering from temporary visual impairment due to oxygen deficiency,Template:Refn exhausted from his efforts, and knowing that from his location and the current time, he stood no chance of reaching the summit and returning safely, Norton retreated from where he had attained a new world altitude record of Template:Convert.Template:Sfn<ref name=MtWorld/> At 9:30Template:Nbsppm, Somervell and Norton reached Camp IV.Template:Sfn
Mallory and Irvine's last climbEdit
On 4 June, at 2:10Template:Nbsppm, Mallory and Irvine, using supplemental oxygen for the final half of their ascent, left Camp III at Template:Convert and reached Camp IV on the North Col at Template:Convert in 3 hours, at 5:10Template:Nbsppm, including about 30 minutes at a dump choosing and testing oxygen cylinders.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn That night, Mallory shared a tent with Norton, who had just returned from his summit attempt with Somervell, and informed Norton that if his summit bid with Somervell had failed, he had planned to make one further attempt with supplemental oxygen.Template:Sfn Mallory elucidated that he went down to Camp III and recruited enough porters with Bruce's assistance for another endeavour.Template:Sfn He chose Irvine as his climbing partner because of the initiative and mechanical expertise he exhibited with the oxygen apparatus.Template:Sfn On 6 June, at 8:40Template:Nbspam, Mallory and Irvine, set off in excellent weather from Camp IV, for Camp V on the North Ridge at Template:Convert, accompanied by eight porters.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Both mountaineers shouldered modified oxygen apparatus, each carrying two cylinders apiece, and their eight porters, not using oxygen, took provisions, bedding, and extra cylinders.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They progressed steadily and attained Camp V in good time, and shortly after 5Template:Nbsppm, four of their porters arrived back at Camp IV, with a note from the climbing party stating, "There is no wind here, and things look hopeful."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The two climbers and their four remaining porters spent the night at Camp V.Template:Sfn On 7 June, Mallory, Irvine, both using oxygen for part of their climb, and the four porters ascended to Camp VI at Template:Convert on the North Ridge.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn That same day, expedition member Noel Odell and his porter Nema, in support of Mallory and Irvine, climbed to Camp V.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Soon after they attained Camp V, Mallory and Irvine's four remaining porters reached it from Camp VI, and gave Odell a note from Mallory.Template:Sfn
Odell's porter, Nema, was suffering from altitude sickness, so that evening Odell sent him down, along with the other four porters, to Camp IV.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn When they reached Camp IV, a porter known as Lakpa gave John Noel a second note from Mallory.Template:Sfn Noel's filming location was above Camp III, on the ledge of a buttress at Template:Convert on the Eastern Ridge of Changtse, which he called "Eagle's Nest Point."Template:Sfn From this vantage point, Noel had a clear view across the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier, the ice slope leading to the North Col, the Northeast Ridge, and the North Face.Template:Sfn Lakpa informed him that Mallory and Irvine were in good health, had reached Camp VI, and the weather was fine.Template:Sfn Mallory's message reminded Noel of the locations and approximate time of where and when to look for them during their summit attempt, which they had previously discussed and organised.Template:Sfn Mallory erroneously wrote 8:0Template:NbspP.M.; he meant A.M.Template:Sfn Template:Quote box The following morning, 8 June, at 8 am, after spending the night alone at Camp V, Odell, again supporting Mallory and Irvine, commenced his ascent up to Camp VI and, on his way, intended to conduct a geological study.Template:Sfn That same morning, Noel perched himself at "Eagle's Nest Point," where he directed the long lens of his motion picture camera towards the summit to film Mallory and Irvine.Template:Sfn He had two assistant porters, peering through a telescope in turns, who saw nothing; 8 am arrived and went without sighting the mountaineers, and by 10 am, cloud and mist had enshrouded their view of the entire summit ridge.Template:Sfn As Odell ascended to Camp VI, in a limestone band at approximately Template:Convert, he discovered the first definite fossils on Everest.Template:Sfn When he reached an elevation of about Template:Convert, Odell climbed a small crag close to Template:Convert in height, and above him, as he reached its top at 12:50Template:Nbsppm, he witnessed a rapid clearing of the atmosphere and consequently saw the entire summit ridge and final peak of Everest revealed, and he sighted Mallory and Irvine on a prominent rock step on the ridge.Template:Sfn
The location of Odell's initial reported final sighting of Mallory and Irvine—before they disappeared into the clouds and was to become the last time the pair were seen alive—was at the top of the Second Step and determined by expedition member John de Vars Hazard using a theodolite to be at an elevation of Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn At approximately 2Template:Nbsppm, as Odell reached Camp VI at Template:Convert, snow began to fall, and the wind strengthened.Template:Sfn Inside Mallory and Irvine's tent, he discovered spare clothes, food scraps, sleeping bags, oxygen cylinders, and parts of the oxygen apparatus; outside, he found parts of the oxygen apparatus and the duralumin carriers.Template:Sfn They left no note specifying when they had commenced their attempt or what might have transpired to create a delay.Template:Sfn Odell departed from Camp VI, ascended about Template:Convert in the direction of the summit in sleet and poor visibility of no more than a few yards, and whistled and yodelled in an attempt to direct Mallory and Irvine towards Camp VI in case they happened to be within hearing distance, but to no avail.Template:Sfn Within one hour, he retreated, and at approximately 4Template:Nbsppm, as he re-attained Camp VI, the weather cleared; the entire North Face became bathed in sunshine, and the upper crags became observable, but there was no sign of Mallory or Irvine.Template:Sfn Odell left Mallory's compass, which he had retrieved from Camp V, inside the tent at Camp VI and, at about 4:30Template:Nbsppm, descended to Camp IV.Template:Sfn
On the morning of 9 June, Odell and Hazard thoroughly inspected Camps V and VI using binoculars, with no sign of either mountaineer.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Odell and two porters, left Camp IV and, at 3:30Template:Nbsppm, reached Camp V, where they spent the night.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The following morning, he sent his porters back to Camp IV, as they were unable to ascend to Camp VI.Template:Sfn In a strong, bitter westerly wind, Odell climbed alone to Camp VI, which he reached about 11Template:Nbspam. It was immediately apparent Mallory and Irvine had not returned, as everything was as he had left it two days previously.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Odell discarded his oxygen apparatus and set off along the presumed route, which both climbers might have taken, to search within the limited time available.Template:Sfn After trudging for two hours with no sign of Mallory or Irvine, he ascertained that the likelihood of finding them was remote in the expanse of crags and slabs, and an extensive search towards the final pyramid necessitated a larger party.Template:Sfn Odell returned to Camp VI and hauled two sleeping bags up to a precipitous snow-patch, where he positioned them in the shape of a T, communicating that there was no trace of Mallory or Irvine.Template:Sfn At 2:10Template:Nbsppm, Hazard, Template:Convert below at Camp IV, saw the T-shaped signal and knew what it meant, as he and Odell had previously drawn up a code of signals before Odell had left the North Col on 9 June.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn At approximately 2:15Template:Nbsppm, Hazard placed six blankets in the shape of a cross on the snow surface, which relayed a signal of death, to the watchers at Camp III.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn After being informed about the situation, expedition leader Norton ordered a response for Hazard on the North Col.Template:Sfn Richard Hingston positioned three lines of blankets arranged apart on the glacier a short distance beyond Camp III, conveying the message, "Abandon hope and come down."Template:Sfn After retrieving Mallory's compass and an oxygen apparatus, Odell descended to Camp IV.Template:Sfn
On 8 June, the same day that Mallory and Irvine were last seen alive, Mallory's wife Ruth and their children were on holiday in Bacton, Norfolk.Template:Sfn On 13 and 14 June, Howard Somervell and Bentley Beetham oversaw the carving and building of a memorial cairn at Base Camp in memory of those who perished in the 1921, 1922, and 1924 expeditions, with the inscription: In Memory Of Three Everest Expeditions; 1921, Kellas; 1922, Lhakpa, Narbu, Pasang, Pema, Sange, Temba, Antarge; 1924, Mallory, Irvine, Shamsher, Manbahadur.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 19 June, Arthur Robert Hinks, who was then in London, received a coded telegram that read, "Mallory Irvine Nove Remainder Alcedo," sent from expedition leader Edward Norton. "Nove" expressed the message that Mallory and Irvine had died, and "Alcedo" meant everyone else was unharmed.Template:Sfn That same day, Hinks sent a telegram to Cambridge, where shortly after 7:30Template:Nbsppm, a delivery boy arrived with it at the Mallory residence, Herschel House, Cambridge, to communicate the tragic news and the condolences of the Mount Everest Committee to Ruth.Template:Sfn
Message from the King and memorial service at St Paul's CathedralEdit
On 24 June, a message sent from King George V to Younghusband of the Everest Committee appeared in The Times, in which the King conveyed "an expression of his sincere sympathy" to the families and committee concerning the deaths of the "two gallant explorers".<ref name="messagefromking">Template:Cite news</ref> On 17 October, a solemn memorial service at St Paul's Cathedral, was held in honour of the two climbers, at which the Right Reverend Henry Paget, Bishop of Chester, from whose diocese both men had come, delivered the sermon.Template:Sfn<ref name="memorialstpauls">Template:Cite news</ref> The parents of both mountaineers, Ruth, relatives and close friends, members of the expeditions and Mount Everest Committee, the Alpine Club, Royal Geographical Society, and other explorers and scientists attended.<ref name="memorialstpauls" /> Additionally present were representatives of the royal family; Sir Sidney Greville represented the King; Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Piers Legh, the Prince of Wales; Lieutenant Colin Buist, the Duke of York.Template:Sfn<ref name="memorialstpauls"/> Mallory's will was proven on 17 December; he bequeathed his estate of £1706 17s. 6d. (equivalent to £Template:Inflation in Template:Inflation-yearTemplate:Inflation-fn) to his wife.<ref name="probate-gm">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Alt URL</ref>
Lost on Everest for 75 yearsEdit
Discovery of the ice axe, 1933Edit
On 30 May 1933, during the 1933 British Mount Everest expedition, Percy Wyn-Harris and Lawrence Wager commenced their summit attempt from Camp VI, at Template:Convert, on the Yellow Band, below the Northeast Ridge.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn After approximately one hour of climbing, Wyn-Harris, who was leading, found an ice axe located about Template:Convert below the crest of the Northeast Ridge and Template:Convert east of and below the First Step, at an elevation of Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Wyn-Harris and Wager left the axe where they had discovered it, and after retreating from a failed summit attempt, Wyn-Harris retrieved the axe and presumably left his own in its place.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn
The axe was ascertained to be either Mallory or Irvine's, to the exclusion of all others.Template:Sfn During his descent with Edward Norton on 4 June 1924, Howard Somervell had dropped his ice axe in the Yellow Band near the Norton Couloir,Template:Refn further west from where Wyn-Harris had found the ice axe, and no mountaineers from the expeditions before 1933, other than Mallory and Irvine, had moved through the location where Wyn-Harris had discovered the axe.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The axe found by Wyn-Harris was therefore definitively Mallory's or Irvine's, but the men present could not identify it further at the time.Template:Sfn When Wyn-Harris showed the axe to Noel Odell in 1934, Odell noticed three parallel horizontal nick marks on its shaft, something which neither Harris nor Wager had noted before.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Odell thought this to be a mark which Irvine might have used on some of his equipment. Some members of Irvine's family also seemed to remember seeing a similar marking, although this could not be verified by visual inspection of items which had been returned to Irvine's family.Template:Sfn Mallory's widow Ruth informed Odell that, "as far as she was aware"—which may indicate she was unsure—Mallory never marked his equipment with triple marks or other type of mark, and assumed the axe belonged to Irvine.Template:Sfn To Odell, Wyn Harris suggested a porter may have cut the triple mark to identify individuals' property during the 1924 expedition, though such was not the practice of many, if any, of the 1924 porters.Template:Sfn Wyn Harris assured Odell that his porter Pugla cut the X mark, seen lower down on the shaft of the axe found in 1933, during the return journey from the 1933 expedition.Template:Sfn Several 1933 expedition members considered it likely the axe belonged to Mallory because it had a Swiss manufacturer, Willisch of Täsch, stamped on it, and Mallory had journeyed to the Alps shortly before the 1924 expedition, when he may have acquired it.Template:Sfn They were unaware this manufacturer had supplied all members of the 1924 expedition with light axes, and Mallory or Irvine might have used them during their fatal summit attempt.Template:Sfn In 1962, a brother of Irvine found a military swagger stick, presumed to have belonged to Irvine, and on it are three horizontal identification nick marks resembling those on the axe discovered by Wyn-Harris in 1933; therefore, the axe is most likely Irvine's.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In 1977, Walt Unsworth, author of Everest: The Ultimate Book of the Ultimate Mountain, examined the axe discovered in 1933 and observed four sets of marks on its shaft.Template:Sfn In addition to the three nicks seen by Odell and the cross mark cut by Pugla, he saw a single horizontal nick mark above the three observed by Odell and another three nick marks, though fainter in appearance, on the other side of the shaft opposite the cross mark.Template:Sfn
Smythe's sighting, 1936Edit
In 1937, Frank Smythe wrote to Edward Norton in reply to Norton's approbation of Smythe's book Camp Six, an account of the 1933 expedition.Template:Sfn Noted in his letter was the discovery of the ice axe in 1933 found below the crest of the Northeast Ridge, where Smythe felt certain it marked the scene of an accident to Mallory and Irvine.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Smythe disclosed that during the 1936 British Mount Everest expedition, scanning Everest's North Face with a high-powered telescope from Base Camp, he had spotted an object, which he presumed was the body of either Mallory or Irvine. At the time he decided not to publicize the fact to avoid press sensationalism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Smythe's sighting remained unknown to the public until his son Tony revealed the information in his 2013 book, My Father, Frank: Unresting Spirit of Everest; the author discovered a copy of the letter in the back of a diary.<ref name="tony-smith-book">Template:Cite news</ref>
Holzel, Everest historianEdit
Everest historian, Tom Holzel, the co-author with Audrey Salkeld of The Mystery of Mallory and Irvine, first became interested in the Mallory and Irvine enigma after reading about it in a 1970 edition of The New Yorker.Template:Sfn Holzel devised a theory regarding the mystery, published in a 1971 edition of Mountain magazine.Template:Sfn His theory was that the two mountaineers split up soon after Odell had sighted them ascending the Second Step at 12:50Template:Nbsppm, and when successfully climbed, each had only Template:Frac hours of supplemental oxygen remaining, insufficient for both to reach the summit in two or three hours.Template:Sfn Holzel argued that given this dilemma, Mallory took Irvine's oxygen equipment, belayed him down the Second Step, from where he descended towards Camp VI at Template:Convert, and with the additional oxygen, Mallory attempted to reach the summit alone.Template:Sfn He further surmised that as the exhausted Irvine descended, the "rather severe blizzard" described by Odell,Template:Sfn which lasted from approximately 2 to 4 pm,Template:Sfn covered the mountain with snow, turned his descent into a deadly endeavour, and caused him to slip and fall to his death.Template:Sfn<ref name="fantastic-riddle">Template:Cite news</ref> Holzel added that Mallory presumably reached the summit in the late afternoon.<ref name="fantastic-riddle"/> He theorised that where the ice axe was found—presumably the scene of an accident—in 1933, a body tumbling down the North Face from the area of its discovery would come to a halt on a snow terrace below at approximately Template:Convert.Template:Sfn
In 1980, Holzel received a letter from Hiroyuki Suzuki, foreign secretary of the Japanese Alpine Club.Template:Sfn Suzuki's letter was in reply to Holzel, who had written to the Japanese inquiring about their 1979 Sino-Japanese Everest reconnaissance expedition and requesting they look out for Irvine's body—which Holzel had prognosticated might be discovered on a snow terrace at about Template:Convert—and the camera he may have carried.Template:Sfn Suzuki's letter contained grievous news.Template:Sfn He wrote that on 12 October 1979, as their reconnoitring party attempted to reach the North Col, an avalanche occurred that swept three Chinese including Wang Hongbao, into a crevasse, resulting in their deaths.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Suzuki told Holzel that on 11 October—the day before the avalanche caused his death—Hongbao informed their expedition climbing leader, Ryoten Hasegawa, that during the 1975 Chinese Mount Everest expedition, he had seen "two deads."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn One he had seen close to a side moraine in the East Rongbuk Glacier below the 1975 expedition Camp III, and the other was on the Northeast Ridge route at an altitude of Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="riddle-of-everest">Template:Cite news</ref> Suzuki expressed that Hongbao was a non-English speaker but repeated the word "English, English" to Hasegawa.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Suzuki added that the first was possibly Maurice Wilson, questioned who the second he saw at Template:Convert was, and informed Holzel that Hongbao touched the latter's torn clothes, some of which the wind had blown away, and buried the corpse by placing snow on it.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn
1986 Mount Everest North Face Research ExpeditionEdit
On 25 August 1986, the Everest North Face Research Expedition, which Holzel instigated, congregated at North Base Camp.Template:Sfn The expedition aimed to resolve the enigma surrounding Mallory and Irvine's disappearance.Template:Sfn Their primary objective was to ascend to the Template:Convert snow terrace, where they intended to locate the remains of the "English dead" Hongbao had sighted during the 1975 Chinese expedition.<ref name="menfree-1986">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They assumed that if found, the cameras both mountaineers may have carried would resolve the mystery of whether or not they had reached the summit.<ref name="menfree-1986"/> Their secondary objective was to search the area immediately above the Second Step, where they hoped to discover Mallory and Irvine's empty oxygen cylinders, proving they had reached that elevation and thus possibly the summit.<ref name="menfree-1986"/> They successfully established Camp V on the North Ridge at an elevation of Template:Convert but were hampered by snowstorms and avalanches, which prevented them from reaching Template:Convert, where they had planned to establish Camp VI, from which they intended to search for Mallory and Irvine.Template:Sfn<ref name="artifacts-of-1922">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="ups-and-downs">Template:Cite news</ref> Despite this, they discovered two oxygen cylinders from the 1922 expedition.<ref name="artifacts-of-1922"/>
During the expedition, their liaison officer, Zhiyi Song, also a member of the 1975 Chinese Everest expedition, on which Hongbao had seen "two deads", informed Holzel that he had heard about Hongbao's story and declared, "None of it is true. Wang never reported finding an English mountaineer".Template:Sfn Holzel asked Song if it was conceivable Hongbao had discovered an English body and did not officially report it and only informed his friends.Template:Sfn Song knowledgeably replied, "If that is so", he knew who Hongbao's mountaineering partners were and Holzel could meet them on the return to Peking.Template:Sfn In Lhasa, Tibet, Song introduced Holzel to Chen Tianliang, Hongboa's 1975 climbing leader.Template:Sfn Tianliang denied Hongbao had discovered an English body at Template:Convert and asserted he would know because he had been with Hongbao the entire time they were at high altitudes.Template:Sfn Tianliang was positive that if Hongbao had come across mortal remains, it must have only been those of a missing Chinese mountaineer whom Tianliang was assigned to search for and who was located a few days later.Template:Sfn As the interview continued, Tianliang agreed with Holzel that Hongbao could not have found the remains of the missing Chinese climber, because he would have identified and reported his find immediately.Template:Sfn Holzel asked Tianliang if there were anything he would like to add, and Tianliang declared that during a rest period at Camp VI,Template:Refn he received a radio call instructing him to ascend to Camp VII to search for the missing climber.Template:Sfn Tianliang ascended, leaving two climbers at Camp VI, Hongbao and Zhang Junyan.Template:Sfn Holzel asked Tianliang if he thought it possible Hongbao might have found an English body after he departed, and Tianliang conceded it was conceivable and added that Zhang Junyan now resided in Peking.Template:Sfn Song arranged a meeting with Junyan.Template:Sfn Through his interpreter, Holzel questioned Junyan about what had occurred at Camp VI after Tianliang left.Template:Sfn Junyan stated he remained in his sleeping bag, and Hongbao exited the tent to go for a walk; he was gone for approximately 20 minutes, and later, Hongbao informed him that he had discovered the remains of a foreign mountaineer and Hongbao had mentioned this to other climbers.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn
1999 Mallory and Irvine Research ExpeditionEdit
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The goal of the 1999 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition was to discover whether Mallory and Irvine had been the first to summit Everest. Objectives included finding Irvine’s body and retrieving a camera that might hold proof of any summit success.Template:Sfn<ref name="mystery-of-mallory">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> It was organised by expedition leader Eric Simonson and advised by researcher Jochen Hemmleb, with mountaineers Conrad Anker, cameraman Dave Hahn and others.<ref name="1999-expedition">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
After he had re-examined the historical record of Everest North Face expeditions, Jochen Hemmleb recognised the only seemingly factual information about Mallory and Irvine—other than artefacts such as the ice axe, found in 1933—was that during the 1975 Chinese Everest expedition, Wang Hongbao had discovered a body he had insisted was "English, English!" during a twenty-minute walk from Camp VI.Template:Sfn The initial challenge was to identify the location of Chinese Camp VI and use it as the centre point of a circular search zone with a twenty-minute walk radius.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn From a photo of Camp VI, Hemmleb determined it was on an ill-defined rib of rock that bisects the snow terrace on the North Face.Template:Sfn
On 1 May 1999, at approximately 10am, Anker, Hahn, Norton, Politz, and Richards reached Template:Convert, where they were to establish Camp VI.Template:Sfn From there, they set out for the "ill-defined rib" and traversed west over the North Face's precipitously angled terrain.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Anker searched on intuition and descended to the lower margin of the snow terrace, where it drops away approximately Template:Convert to the head of the central Rongbuk Glacier and soon after zig-zagging back up in the direction of Camp VI, he looked west and saw a "patch of white," which he proceeded towards, and ascertained it was an old body; it was 11:45Template:Nbspam, and Template:Convert was the elevation where the corpse lay.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="patch-of-white">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The body was partially frozen into the scree and well preserved due to the cold, dry air and constant freezing temperatures.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="mystery-unresolved">Template:Cite news</ref> Tied to the corpse's waist were the remnants of a braided cotton climbing rope, tangled around the body, from which its broken, frayed end trailed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The prevalent assumption was Irvine had fallen in 1924 from where, in 1933, Percy Wyn-Harris had discovered the ice axe, presumably Irvine's; therefore, Anker, Hahn, Norton, and Richards expected the body to be his, but Politz said, "This is not him."Template:SfnTemplate:Refn Norton found a label reading, "G. Mallory."Template:Sfn They discovered another label with "G. Leigh. Ma," and a third label.Template:Sfn The expedition members realised, to their astonishment, that they had not found Irvine as expected, but Mallory.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Because the corpse had frozen into the surrounding scree, the mountaineers used their ice axes and pocketknives to excavate the site to find crucial artefacts and, most importantly, Somervell's Vest Pocket Kodak camera he "allegedly" lent Mallory for his attempt.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn If they discovered the camera, it might have solved the mystery of whether or not the summit was reached for the first time in 1924, 30 years before the first confirmed summit in 1953.Template:Sfn Experts from Kodak said it might be possible to develop images from the film and have drawn up specific guidelines for an expedition that might discover the camera.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="holzel-kodak">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Personal possessions were discovered on Mallory's body including lettersTemplate:Refn addressed to him. To the expedition members' dismay the most sought-after object, the camera, was not found after a thorough search.Template:Sfn The mountaineers buried Mallory, covering his remains with rocks, and Politz read a Church of England committal ceremony provided by the Bishop of Bristol.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The discovery of the body revealed circumstantial evidence that suggests Mallory might have reached the summit: firstly, Mallory's daughter always said Mallory carried a photo of his wife with the intention of leaving it on the summit,<ref name = "Hellen">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and no such photo was found on the body. Given the excellent preservation of the body and personal possessions, the absence of the photo suggests he may have reached the summit and deposited it there. Secondly, Mallory's snow goggles were in his pocket, indicating he may have died at night; that he and Irvine had made a push for the summit and were descending very late in the day. Given their known departure time and movements, had they not made the summit, it is unlikely they would have still been out by nightfall.
Sir Edmund Hillary enthusiastically welcomed the discovery of Mallory's body and described it as "very appropriate" that Mallory might have summited decades earlier. "He was really the initial pioneer of the whole idea of climbing Mount Everest," Hillary said. Mallory's son John said, "To me the only way you achieve a summit is to come back alive; the job's half done if you don't get down again."<ref name="hobnail-boots">Template:Cite news</ref>
Further expeditionsEdit
The 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition retraced Mallory and Irvine’s route and attempted to find artefacts from the early attempts.Template:Sfn<ref name="2001-expedition">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="2001-m&i-re-homepage">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Jake Norton and Brent Okita discovered the remnants of the 1924 Camp VI at an altitude of Template:Convert, from which Mallory and Irvine had departed on 8 June.Template:Sfn<ref name="1924-camp-vi">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Norton discovered a woollen mitten of unknown origin on the Northeast Ridge at an altitude of Template:Convert; it may have belonged to Mallory or Irvine.Template:Sfn There were research initiatives in 2004, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2018, 2019 and the 2007 Altitude Everest expedition retraced Mallory and Irvine's footsteps.<ref name="the-final-chapter">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="mallory-irvine-searches">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="anker-mallory-irvine">Template:Cite magazine</ref>
TimelineEdit
- 1893: Aged 7, climbed the roof of a church.
- 1904: Aged 18, made his first significant climb by summiting Mont Blanc, the highest peak in Western Europe.
- 1909: First ascent of the Southeast Ridge of Nesthorn (3,822 m).
- 1911: First ascent of the Western Ridge of Herbétet (3,778 m) and third ascent of the Southeast Ridge (Frontier Ridge) of Mont Maudit (4,465 m).
- 1912: Established a new route on the West Face of Dent Blanche, marking a first ascent of this face.
- 1915Template:Ndash18: Officer in the First World War.
- 1919: First ascent of a new route on the Aiguille des Grands Charmoz (3,445 m) and Aiguille du Midi (3,842 m), later named the "Rectified Mallory-Porter Route."
- 1920: Summiting the Matterhorn (4,478 m) and Zinalrothorn (4,221 m).
- 1921: First British reconnaissance expedition to Everest, helping to map out potential routes to the summit.
- 1922: Second British expedition to Everest, where his team set a world altitude record of 27,300 feet (8,231 m)<ref name=MtWorld/> using supplemental oxygen.
- 1924: Disappeared near the summit along with Andrew "Sandy" Irvine, leading to one of the greatest mysteries in mountaineering.
- 1924Template:Ndash1950s: Speculation about whether Mallory and Irvine reached the summit, adding to the mystery surrounding their disappearance.
- 1953: Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay became the first climbers confirmed to have reached the summit of Everest, renewing interest in Mallory and Irvine.
- 1975: A Chinese climber reported finding the body of an "old English dead" climber on the north face of Everest, likely either Mallory or Irvine.
- 1986: Climbers Conrad Anker and David Roberts examined the route Mallory might have taken and considered the possibility of successful ascent.
- 1999: Publication of Ghosts of Everest: The Search for Mallory & Irvine brought renewed attention to the mystery of Mallory and Irvine.
- 1999: Mallory's mortal remains and personal effects were discovered, but whether he had reached the summit remains unknown.
- 2007: Conrad Anker, who had helped discover Mallory's body, completed a replica climb of Everest using period gear similar to what Mallory would have used.
- 2010: The film The Wildest Dream highlighted both his life and modern efforts to uncover the truth.
- 2024: A National Geographic team found Irvine's partial remains on the Central Rongbuk Glacier at an altitude at least 7,000 feet lower than where Mallory's body was discovered.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="National Geographic">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
TheoriesEdit
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"Second Step"Edit
As Mallory and Irvine used the Northeast Ridge route, they would have had to free-climb the formidable Second Step.Template:Sfn Of the Three Steps on the upper Northeast Ridge, the Second and most prominent, rising approximately Template:Convert and consisting of precipitous, brittle rock at an extreme altitude of Template:Convert, is the most demanding.Template:Sfn The final upper section of this step is its crux, a Template:Convert nearly vertical headwall slab to which the 1975 Chinese expedition affixed a Template:Convert aluminium ladder.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="chinese-ladder-1975">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Although disputed, the first successful ascent of the Second Step occurred during the 1960 Chinese Mount Everest expedition, as all four mountaineers were breathing supplemental oxygen.Template:Sfn They used a technique called "short ladder" in which Chu Yin-hau stood on Liu Lianman's shoulders to climb to the top of the crux.Template:Sfn Chu Yin-hau then belayed himself to a rock at the top of the Step and brought others up on the rope.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It took 3 hours for 4 mountaineers to ascend the crux, and they used pitons, which neither Mallory nor Irvine had.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In 1985, during full-monsoon conditions and without supplementary oxygen, Òscar Cadiach, climbing on lead, achieved the first successful free-climb of the Second Step, ascending the crux on belay with a sling tied to one of the rungs of the Chinese ladder. He graded the vertical crack, that forms the crux, at about 5.8.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="oscar-cadiach-1985">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="oscar-cadiach-sge">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2001, Theo Fritsche free-soloed the crux without supplementary oxygen, and assessed it as about 5.7.Template:Sfn<ref name="theo-fritsche-2001">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 2003, Nickolay Totmjanin free-climbed it without supplementary oxygen.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/><ref name="nickolay-totmjanin-2003">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On the 2007 Altitude expedition, Anker and Leo Houlding successfully free-climbed the crux headwall, having first removed the ladder, both rating it about 5.9.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/> Everyone known to have free-climbed this step believes it was within Mallory and Irvine's capability,<ref name="anker-mallory-irvine"/><ref name="cold-feet">Template:Cite news</ref> but other question marks remain, e.g. concerning oxygen.<ref name="mallory-irvine-?"/>
Western disturbanceEdit
Research published in 2010 indicates an extreme storm may have contributed to the deaths of Mallory and Irvine.<ref name="storm-mallory-irvine">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="pioneers-storm">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="deaths-explained">Template:Cite news</ref> Physicist George Moore discovered meteorological data from the 1924 expedition at the Royal Geographical Society's library in London.<ref name="storm-mallory-irvine"/><ref name="pioneers-storm"/><ref name="deaths-explained"/> The data consisted of daily barometric pressure and temperature measurements recorded at Base Camp at Template:Convert.Template:Sfn Temperature measurements were also recorded at higher camps.Template:Sfn The data collected, together with an analysed sea-level pressure map hand-drawn by the India Meteorological Department, were used to show that Mallory and Irvine's summit attempt occurred when there was a drop in barometric pressure and temperature, which was likely the result of the passage of an upper-level trough.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn This is known locally as a western disturbance.Template:Sfn The authors hypothesised that the passage of the disturbance possibly triggered an outbreak of convective activity that resulted in the blizzard, witnessed by observation, engulfing Everest during the attempt.Template:Sfn Odell described the morning of 8 June as "clear and not unduly cold",Template:Sfn with snowfall and increasing winds beginning at approximately 2 pm,Template:Sfn which he described as a "rather severe blizzard,"Template:Sfn lasting about two hours and possibly severe enough to force Mallory and Irvine to abandon their bid.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Records show a drop in barometric pressure at Base Camp of 18 millibars during the attempt.Template:Sfn A drop of a similar magnitude possibly occurred at higher altitudes on the Himalayan peak.Template:Sfn This decrease in barometric pressure likely induced aggravation of their hypoxic state.Template:Sfn Also, if they had run out of supplemental oxygen during the early afternoon, this would have exacerbated their hypoxic condition.Template:Sfn The cumulative effects of hypoxia, fatigue and bitter cold during a severe blizzard would have left Mallory and Irvine at their limits of endurance.Template:Sfn The authors believe there is persuasive evidence the severe weather they experienced may have been more extreme than previously thought.Template:Sfn This harsh weather and decreased barometric pressure may have contributed to their demise.Template:Sfn
LegacyEdit
At Winchester College there is a memorial to him in the cloister adjacent to the college chapel.<ref name="winchester-memorial">Template:Cite news</ref> Mallory was honoured by having a court named after him at Magdalene College,Template:Sfn with an inscribed stone commemorating his death set above the doorway to one of the buildings.Template:Sfn<ref name="mallory-court">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> To commemorate Mallory's position as Magdalene Boat Club Captain, the Friends of Magdalene Boat Club changed their name to the Mallory Club.Template:Sfn A plaque commemorates him in the South African Cloisters at Charterhouse.Template:Sfn<ref name="charterhouse-memorial">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A stained-glass triptych window at St Wilfrid's Church, Mobberley, Cheshire, portraying three figures from English mythology, Saint George, King Arthur and Sir Galahad, also has two panels with inscriptions commemorating Mallory.Template:Sfn<ref name="craig-thornber">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In addition to his father, Herbert Leigh Mallory, the rector of Mobberley, Mallory's grandfather, George Leigh Mallory, was the parish's rector.Template:Sfn In the cloisters of Chester Cathedral, there is a memorial window commemorating Mallory and Irvine.Template:Sfn Two high peaks in California's Sierra Nevada, Mount Mallory and Mount Irvine, are named after them.<ref name="gnis-mallory">Template:Cite gnis</ref><ref name="gnis-irvine">Template:Cite gnis</ref>
Tragedy in the mountains has proved a recurring theme in the Mallory line; his brother, Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, met his death on a mountain range when the Avro York carrying him crashed in the French Alps in 1944, killing all on board.<ref name="raf-bio">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="avro-york">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="wartime-hero">Template:Cite news</ref> Mallory's daughter, Frances Clare, married physiologist Glenn Allan Millikan, who was killed in a climbing accident in 1947 at Buzzard's Roost in Fall Creek Falls State Park, Tennessee.Template:Sfn<ref name="milestones">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="clare"/>
Frances Mallory's sons, Richard and George Millikan, became respected climbers in the 1960s and 70s.Template:Sfn In July 1963, Richard Millikan and other members of the Harvard Mountaineering Club, made the first ascent of the central rib of the Wickersham Wall on the north face of Denali, reaching North Peak at Template:Convert.Template:Sfn In 1995, together with six other climbers, George Mallory, grandson of Mallory, reached the summit of Everest via the North Col-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route as part of an American Everest expedition and evoked a sense of "unfinished business" by leaving a photo of his grandparents on the summit.Template:Sfn<ref name="clare"/><ref name="mallory-summit-1995">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Mallory was filmed by expedition cameraman John Noel, who released his film of the 1924 expedition, The Epic of Everest.<ref name="epic-of-everest">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="silent-film">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Film director George Lowe used footage from The Epic of Everest in the 1953 documentary, The Conquest of Everest.<ref name="conquest-of-everest">Template:Cite AV media</ref> A documentary on the 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition, Found On Everest: Detectives on the Roof of the World, was produced by Riley Morton.<ref name="q&a-riley-morton">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Brian Blessed played Mallory in Galahad of Everest, a 1991 re-creation of his last climb.<ref name="galahad-of-everest">Template:Cite news</ref> In Anthony Geffen's 2010 documentary about Mallory's life and final expedition, The Wildest Dream, Conrad Anker and Leo Houlding attempt to reconstruct the climb, dressed and equipped like Mallory and Irvine.<ref name="anker-mallory-irvine"/><ref name="wildest-dream-review">Template:Cite magazine</ref>
Mallory and Irvine inspired Baku Yumemakura to author the 1998 novel The Summit of the Gods, which in turn inspired a manga series published from 2000–03, which was adapted into an anime-influenced animation film, Le Sommet des Dieux, in 2021. Everest, a proposed Hollywood version of the 1924 attempt, adapted from Jeffrey Archer's novel Paths of Glory, to be directed by Doug Liman, had Ewan McGregor slated to play Mallory.<ref name="doug-liman">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="everest-ewan-mcgregor">Template:Cite magazine</ref> Template:As of it was not in production.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In September 2009, a temporary exhibition detailing Mallory and Irvine's lives opened at the Salt Museum (now Weaver Hall Museum and Workhouse), Northwich.<ref name="m&i-exhibition">Template:Cite news</ref> The exhibition, "Above the Clouds – Mallory and Irvine and the Quest for Everest," featured items discovered on Mallory's body, as well as artefacts and photos from the 1924 expedition.<ref name="m&i-exhibition"/>Template:Sfn
Mallory was referenced by President John F. Kennedy in 1962, in his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech, regarded as one of the great speeches of the 20th century: 'the great British explorer George Mallory, who was to die on Mount Everest, was asked why did he want to climb it. He said, "Because it is there." Well, space is there, and we're going to climb it...'<ref name="jfk-speech-1962">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
See alsoEdit
- List of people who died climbing Mount Everest
- List of solved missing person cases: pre-1950
- List of unsolved deaths
FootnotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
BibliographyEdit
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MagazinesEdit
External linksEdit
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- Peter H. Hansen: Mallory, George Herbert Leigh (1886–1924) – Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
- Template:Usurped – Mallory Myths.
- Mallory and Irvine Memorials – Mount Everest The British Story.
- The George Mallory Award – Wasatch Mountain Film Festival.
- Everest Dream – Kelly Joyce Neff.
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